The present paper aims to validate our research on human–humanoid interaction (HHI) using the minimalist humanoid robot Telenoid. We conducted the human–robot interaction test with 142 young people who had no prior interaction experience with this robot. The main goal is the analysis of the two social dimensions (‘‘Perception’’ and ‘‘Believability’’) useful for increasing the natural behaviour between users and Telenoid.Weadministered our custom questionnaire to human subjects in association with a well defined experimental setting (‘‘ordinary and goal-guided task’’). A (...) thorough analysis of the questionnaires has been carried out and reliability and internal consistency in correlation between the multiple items has been calculated. Our experimental results show that the perceptual behaviour and believability, as implicit social competences, could improve the meaningfulness and the natural-like sense of human–humanoid interaction in everyday life task-driven activities. Telenoid is perceived as an autonomous cooperative agent for a shared environment by human beings. (shrink)

Psychopathy refers to a range of complex behaviors and personality traits, including callousness and antisocial behavior, typically studied in criminal populations. Recent studies have used self-reports to examine psychopathic traits among noncriminal samples. The goal of the current study was to examine the underlying factor structure of the Self-Report of Psychopathy Scale–Short Form (SRP-SF) across complementary samples and examine the impact of gender on factor structure. We examined the structure of the SRP-SF among 2,554 young adults from three undergraduate (...) samples and a high-risk young adult sample. Using confirmatory factor analysis, a four-correlated factor model and a four-bifactor model showed good fit to the data. Evidence of weak invariance was found for both models across gender. These findings highlight that the SRP-SF is a useful measure of low-level psychopathic traits in noncriminal samples, although the underlying factor structure may not fully translate across men and women. (shrink)

Anemia is a common health problem among Libyan women. Age, heavy menstruation, and pregnancy are vital risk factors for this problem. In this study, we prospectively examined 60 Libyan women all of which were diagnosed with iron deficiency anemia, their hemoglobin levels were less than 10.0 g/dl. The level of hemoglobin is also analyzed for vegetarian and charcoal-eating women. We found that during pregnancy charcoal-eating women exhibit lower hemoglobin levels than non-eating women. Pregnant young women in the age of (...) 17-27 years have the lowest hemoglobin levels than the other age groups. In addition, vegetarians, heavy coffee and tea drinking, and heavy menstruation in non-pregnant women, as well as breastfeeding, strongly lower hemoglobin levels as measured by their complete blood count. (shrink)

My first paper on the Is/Ought issue. The young Arthur Prior endorsed the Autonomy of Ethics, in the form of Hume’s No-Ought-From-Is (NOFI) but the later Prior developed a seemingly devastating counter-argument. I defend Prior's earlier logical thesis (albeit in a modified form) against his later self. However it is important to distinguish between three versions of the Autonomy of Ethics: Ontological, Semantic and Ontological. Ontological Autonomy is the thesis that moral judgments, to be true, must answer to a (...) realm of sui generis non-natural PROPERTIES. Semantic autonomy insists on a realm of sui generis non-natural PREDICATES which do not mean the same as any natural counterparts. Logical Autonomy maintains that moral conclusions cannot be derived from non-moral premises.-moral premises with the aid of logic alone. Logical Autonomy does not entail Semantic Autonomy and Semantic Autonomy does not entail Ontological Autonomy. But, given some plausible assumptions Ontological Autonomy entails Semantic Autonomy and given the conservativeness of logic – the idea that in a valid argument you don’t get out what you haven’t put in – Semantic Autonomy entails Logical Autonomy. So if Logical Autonomy is false – as Prior appears to prove – then Semantic and Ontological Autonomy would appear to be false too! I develop a version of Logical Autonomy (or NOFI) and vindicate it against Prior’s counterexamples, which are also counterexamples to the conservativeness of logic as traditionally conceived. The key concept here is an idea derived in part from Quine - that of INFERENCE-RELATIVE VACUITY. I prove that you cannot derive conclusions in which the moral terms appear non-vacuously from premises from which they are absent. But this is because you cannot derive conclusions in which ANY (non-logical) terms appear non-vacuously from premises from which they are absent Thus NOFI or Logical Autonomy comes out as an instance of the conservativeness of logic. This means that the reverse entailment that I have suggested turns out to be a mistake. The falsehood of Logical Autonomy would not entail either the falsehood Semantic Autonomy or the falsehood of Ontological Autonomy, since Semantic Autonomy only entails Logical Autonomy with the aid of the conservativeness of logic of which Logical Autonomy is simply an instance. Thus NOFI or Logical Autonomy is vindicated, but it turns out to be a less world-shattering thesis than some have supposed. It provides no support for either non-cognitivism or non-naturalism. (shrink)

Fallibilism, as a fundamental aspect of pragmatic epistemology, can be illuminated by a study of law. Before he became a famous American judge, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., along with his friends William James and Charles Sanders Peirce, associated as presumptive members of the Metaphysical Club of Cambridge in the 1870s, recalled as the birthplace of pragmatism. As a young scholar, Holmes advanced a concept of legal fallibilism as incremental community inquiry. In this early work, I suggest that Holmes treats (...) common law cases more like scientific experiments than as deductive applications of already clear rules. Common law rules may be seen as a product of 1) the conflicts that occur in society, 2) the channeling of conflicts into legal disputes, 3) the gradual accumulation of judicial decisions classified into groups, and 4) the development of consensual understanding, expressed in rules and principles, as to how future cases should be classified and decided. This does not involve only lawyers and judges. Especially in controversial cases, it may indirectly involve an entire community. The legal process is seen as an extended intergenerational process of inquiry. It illuminates the relation of thought, expression, and conduct among a community of inquirers, applied to the problems of social ordering. (shrink)

In 2035 global egg demand will have risen 50% from 1985. Because we are not able to tell in the egg whether it will become a male or female chick, billons of one day-old male chicks will be killed. International research initiatives are underway in this area, and governments encourage the development of an alternative with the goal of eliminating the culling of day-old male chicks. The Netherlands holds an exceptional position in the European egg trade, but is also the (...) only country in the European Union where the downside of the egg sector, the practice of killing day-old male chicks, is a recurrent subject of societal debate. ‘Preventing the killing of young animals’ and ‘in ovo sex determination’ are the two alternative approaches available to solve this problem. It is clear that both approaches solve the problem of killing day-old male chicks, either by keeping them alive or by preventing them from living, but they also raise a lot of new animal welfare-related dilemmas. A thorough analysis was undertaken of these dilemmas and the results are presented in this article. The analysis resulted in an ethical framework based on the two main approaches in bioethics: a consequentialist approach and a deontological approach. This ethical framework was used to develop an online survey administered to ascertain Dutch public opinion about these alternative approaches. The results show that neither alternative will be fully accepted, or accepted by more than half of Dutch society. However, the survey does provide an insight into the motives that are important for people’s choice: food safety and a good treatment of animals. Irrespective of the approach chosen, these values should be safeguarded and communicated clearly. (shrink)

For Albert Camus, plague was both a fact of life and a powerful metaphor for the human condition. Camus engaged most explicitly and extensively with the subject of plague in his 1947 novel, The Plague (La peste), which chronicles an outbreak of what is presumably cholera in the French-Algerian city of Oran. I often thought of this novel—and what it might teach us—during the recent COVID-19 pandemic. In this article, I discuss seven important insights from The Plague about epidemics, (...) public health and morality. (shrink)

This article is featured in a special issue dedicated to theme, "the human being in the digital era: awareness, critical thinking and political space in the age of the internet and artificial intelligence." In this article, I consider the way that social-media companies nudge us to spend more time on their platforms, and I argue that, in principle, these nudges are morally permissible: they are not manipulative and do not violate any obvious moral rules. The moral problem, I argue, is (...) not with nudging in principle but is instead with the fact that users are being nudged towards something bad for them. In practice, this often involves being nudged to spend an unhealthy amount of time using a social-media app or being nudged towards content that is bad for us, such as by promoting eating-disorder content to young girls. Since nudging is morally permissible, it is open to these companies to use the same technologies to nudge us towards the good. (shrink)

In this article it is shown that a careful analysis of Kant 's Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte und Beurtheilung der Beweise leads to a conclusion that does not match the usually accepted interpretation of Kant 's reasoning in 1747, according to which the young Kant supposedly establishes a relationship between the tridimensionality of space and Newton's law of gravitation. Indeed, it is argued that this text does not yield a satisfactory explanation of space dimensionality, and (...) actually restricts itself to justifying the tridimensionality of extension. (shrink)

The purpose of the study was to determine the demographic profiles in terms of age, sex, years in teaching, type of school and ethnicity, SOGIE, perception about the workplace climate in terms of the different gender prejudices faced by secondary science teachers at City of Dasmariñas, Cavite; the study aims to identify if there is a significant difference between perceptions of the participants about the gender prejudices when grouped according to demographic profile; determine if there is a substantial relationship between (...) SOGIE and perceptions about the gender prejudices. This study developed an action plan to promote awareness and make schools SOGIE-sensitive; the research design was quantitative, and an online questionnaire was the data-gathering tool. Descriptive statistics used were mean, median, and standard error; the second level was for relational statistics using Chi-square statistics, Mann-Whitney statistics, and Kruskal-Walli’s statistics. The study revealed that most science teachers in Dasmariñas City, Cavite, were female and young professionals. Science teachers at the secondary level have a diverse SOGIE; in addition, there is zero visibility for transgender people and intersex people. Generally, the secondary schools in the City of Dasmariñas, Cavite, are unsafe for people with diverse SOGIE, especially for transgender and intersex people. The study suggests that the action plan proposed in this study should be adopted by schools to address the issues of gender prejudices and to promote awareness of SOGIE. (shrink)

The study was conducted to determine the pitfalls encountered by grade five teachers during modular teaching and learning. Specifically, it aimed to find out the pitfalls encountered by teachers along with students’ comprehension, students’ academic behavior, monitoring of students’ education, and physical interaction with the learners. The personal profile of teachers, out of the total respondents (56), most of the teachers are female-dominated. Most of them belong to the age bracket of 34 to 45 and most of the teachers are (...) married. Most of the teachers had attended post-graduate studies. Most respondents are still young in the service, holding Teacher 2 and Teacher 3 positions, and attending local, national, and regional training. On the level of pitfalls encountered by teachers in modular teaching and learning, most respondents experienced a slight gravity level in the four aspects. The computed average weighted mean along comprehension is 2.50, along academic behavior is 2.54, along monitoring of students’ performance is 2.58, and along physical interaction is 2.79. All have an equivalent value of moderately grave. There is a specific profile of teachers that is significantly related. Age is significantly associated with monitoring students’ learning. The computed r value is .270, while the calculated significance level is 0.04. Training attended by the teachers is significantly related to some aspects of students’ comprehension, (computed sig. value is 0.04 and physical interaction is .02), which is lower than the .05 level of significance. The grade five teachers who served as respondents are mostly female dominated; they are in their early forties and married. Most of them are attending post-graduate studies and have attended relevant training. Second, the level of teachers’ pitfalls is mostly moderately grave. In addition, age is significantly related to monitoring, training is significantly associated substantially with physical interaction and comprehension. (shrink)

One of the recurring themes in Čapek’s play is the existential question of whether the reductionist materialist worldview – the belief that we can fully explain the world, including ourselves, in terms of nothing but physical processes – can accommodate all that is essential to the human being. The materialist worldview triumphed with the scientific revolution, which in turn laid the foundations for the military-industrial complex. This historical shift is represented in the play by the business-minded young Rossum inheriting (...) the bio-engineering methodology from the mad scientist old Rossum. A key difference between the two is that old Rossum’s materialist stance is an ideological commitment, whereas for young Rossum working within a materialist framework is more a matter of convenience: for him it is sufficient for most practical purposes to replicate the machine-like aspects of a person. Where does this leave the soul, or what we today might prefer to call consciousness? The question of whether human nature goes beyond its physical aspects, and whether these subjective aspects can also be artificially replicated, is extremely challenging to address in scientific theory and practice –100 years ago as much as now. (shrink)

(The Kindle book can be ordered for $3.21 from Amazon) -/- Thinking is a fundamental activity of our species – those that give names to other creatures and call themselves humans. Textbooks tell us that there is about 1.2 kg of matter called the brain inside the human body. It sounds small but actually is proportionally the biggest among all animals on Earth. -/- I became more aware of thinking at around 5th grade upon hearing about an ancient paradox. It (...) can be summarized as follows. -/- ¤ -/- Once upon a time, there was a stupid king. In his kingdom lived a sage who was highly respected for his intelligence. The King did not appreciate this fact. Maybe the Sage made fun of the King’s intellect, but I am not so sure. Anyway, one day, the King summoned the Sage, intending to kill him. -/- The King said, “Wise man, I heard you earn a living by thinking and arguing. Now I give you two options to die.” -/- The Sage said, “Please tell me the choices, Your Majesty.” -/- The King continued, “You live by your tongue, so I will let you say one sentence before you die. If what you say is true, you will die by hanging. If what you say is false, you will die by beheading.” -/- Little did the King know that this was a stupid order. After a short while, the Sage confidently spoke his “last words”, which actually were what saved his life: -/- “Your Majesty, I am about to be beheaded!” -/- ¤ -/- As a “wild animal” going out into life from a young age, my brain spent a lot of time and energy looking for food. Now that I have become older, my body no longer needs so much sustenance. However, my mind craves a different type of nourishment: food for thought. -/- Food for thought can directly lead to food (on the table). My main job as a scientist exemplifies what I have just stated. Maybe we were wrong. Maybe it has been “thought for food” all along, like in such a sequence as TFFTTTFTFFTTFFFT... -/- In the hyper-chaotic infosphere today, we are surrounded by the noises of information, not only as wavy shores or waterfalls but also mega-tsunamis, through Twitter, Facebook, Tiktok, Instagram, Youtube, etc. More than ever, tranquility and calmness are necessary. Like what you have seen in wilderness video clips, predators such as lions, bears, and alligators act lightning-fast when catching prey. But when food is served, the natural world returns to its peaceful, soothing silence. -/- This short book is in its own tidy infosphere, where each little story is also brief and self-contained. Despite this small appearance, I hope the content inside carries the value of tranquility and life observation. The book is petite, but pretty sure not malnourished. A not-too-small detail is that the way the content was shaped and distilled reflects some innovations of mine and my research team: the mindsponge theory, a new theory of serendipity, the bayesvl R package, the BMF analytics, as well as other experiences from working in the field of science. After all, scientific works were my main source of food (before this book sells well – if it does). -/- Welcome to the priceless sober moments – with a chicken-burger price tag! -/- I hope this book will bring readers some moments of calmness, peaceful smiles, and maybe a couple of good laughs too. -/- ~~~ -/- *This update: December 12, 2023 (Third edition, with additions). (shrink)

In 1964, the young Walter Kasper (born in 1933) was granted by the Faculty of Catholic Theology at Tübingen the licence to teach dogmatic theology on the basis of a thesis on Philosophie und Theologie der Geschichte in der Spätphilosophie Schellings (Philosophy and Theology of History in Schelling’s Late Philosophy). Kasper’s interest in Schelling, himself a student at the Evangelisches Stift at Tübingen, thus originated in the context of his university studies in the school of J.R. Geiselmann and developed (...) in parallel with his theological education. For this reason, it is impossible to form a correct idea of Kasper and his whole theology unless one is willing to take into account this background, not least because he himself has always consciously and forcefully recognised this fact and seen in it his own centre of gravity. Kasper’s work and thought were shaped in a lasting manner during his university years. In fact, his entire academic oeuvre has been nurtured from this fecund origin so much so that he became one of the most well known names associated with the Catholic school at Tübingen to which he gave a new, creative impulse having himself been profoundly inspired by it. ‘He always emphasised his own roots not only as a teacher of theology and a member of the teaching faculty of this institution, but also as bishop’ and cardinal. The principal intention of the present article is precisely this: to return to this beginning and elucidate these decisive years for Kasper in broad outline by way of a relecture and interpretation of his book on The Absolute in History and the particular manner in which he interpreted the so-called second Schelling, an author whom he approached in the wake of Walter Schulz and at practically the same time as Xavier Tilliette. The analysis will subsequently move on into the more properly theological field. (shrink)

Το ερώτημα πώς μπορούν να προσδιοριστούν οι λειτουργίες του νου και σύμφωνα με ποιες αρχές θα ήταν χρήσιμο να κατηγοριοποιηθούν είναι διττό και αφορά τόσο στην επιστήμη, όσο και την φιλοσοφία: στην πρώτη, εφόσον μέλημά της είναι η αναζήτηση συμπερασμάτων διαμέσου του πειράματος και της ανάλυσης και στην δεύτερη, εφόσον η αποσαφήνιση επιστημονικών εννοιών και ορισμών διευθετείται κυρίως φιλοσοφικά. Προϋπόθεση για μία τέτοια συσχέτιση είναι οι αρχές της επιστήμης να συμβαδίζουν προς τις αρχές της εμπειρίας και οι κατευθύνσεις της φιλοσοφίας (...) να μην αντίκειται προς τους όρους του επιστημονικού πειράματος: να προσφέρει δηλαδή, η φιλοσοφία, τους ορισμούς της πραγματικότητας, σύμφωνα με τους επιστημονικούς κανόνες που διέπουν αυτούς τους ορισμούς. Επιστήμη και φιλοσοφία οφείλουν να ενσωματώνουν και να γενικεύουν πληροφορίες κατά τρόπο ανάλογο προς τις προτάσεις και της εκφράσεις μιας φυσικής γλώσσας. Ωστόσο, σε μία εποχή όπου τα συμπεράσματα της επιστήμης ξεπερνούν την δυνατότητα των αισθήσεων να ανατρέχουν σε προϋπάρχουσες εμπειρίες και να επιβεβαιώνονται διαμέσου αυτών, δημιουργούνται συζητήσεις γύρω από το εάν η φιλοσοφία, μπορεί να συνεχίσει να στέκεται δίπλα στην εννοιολογική γνώση και να ταξινομεί με ακρίβεια τα αποτελέσματά της. Εξετάζοντας το σύνολο των σχέσεων μεταξύ αισθητικών και λογικών μορφών, στην μελέτη που ακολουθεί θα εξηγήσουμε γιατί η φιλοσοφία, διαμέσου μιας μεθοδολογίας που είναι αποτέλεσμα ιστορικής κληρονομιάς αλλά και κοινωνικής πρακτικής, όχι μόνον αφήνει χώρο, αλλά ενθαρρύνει την δημιουργία νέων συντακτικών σχέσεων με την επιστήμη, ανοίγοντας δρόμο για την αισθητική κατανόηση της επιστημονικής μέτρησης, αλλά και της ειδικής φύσης του μετρούμενου. Δεν ξέρω εάν υπάρχει μεγαλύτερο χάρισμα για τον άνθρωπο από την ικανότητα να εξισορροπεί τις λειτουργίες του νου του: τη λογική με το σκοπό και τη διασκεπτική ενέργεια με τη βούληση. Αρκεί να αναλογιστούμε ότι, καμία σκοπιμότητα δεν στερείται λογικών κρίσεων και αντίστροφα: κάθε λογική κρίση οδηγείται από πρακτικές σκοπιμότητες, από αξιολογικές συνιστώσες. Πώς όμως μπορούν να προσδιοριστούν οι λειτουργίες του νου και ακόμη περισσότερο, σύμφωνα με ποιες αρχές μπορούν να κατηγοριοποιηθούν; Πρόκειται για ένα ερώτημα επιστημονικό, εφόσον αναζητά λύση διαμέσου του πειράματος και της ανάλυσης, ταυτόχρονα όμως και φιλοσοφικό, δεδομένου ότι οι επιστημονικές έννοιες, όπως αποκαλύπτει η χρήση τους, βασίζονται κατά κύριο λόγο στις κατευθύνσεις της φιλοσοφίας. Προϋπόθεση σε μία τέτοια συσχέτιση είναι οι κατευθύνσεις και τα συμπεράσματα της φιλοσοφίας να μην αντίκειται στα αποτελέσματα και τις μετρήσεις του επιστημονικού πειράματος: ρόλος της επιστήμης είναι η λογική μελέτη και ανάλυση των φυσικών φαινομένων, και της φιλοσοφίας η αποσαφήνιση των εννοιών. Η επιστήμη αυτοκαθορίζεται, δηλαδή ανατρέχει στις βάσεις της επιβεβαιώνοντας ή αναθεωρώντας τα δεδομένα, διατηρώντας έτσι ζωντανά τα ερωτήματά της. Σκοπός της επιστήμης είναι, διαμέσου της ανάκλησης των ερωτημάτων της, να καλύπτει όσο το δυνατό περισσότερα κενά. Έτσι κινείται η επιστήμη: μεταβαίνοντας από το απλούστερο στο συνθετότερο και αντίστροφα, προκειμένου να επιβεβαιώνει τις παρατηρήσεις της με βάση την πρόβλεψη. Και πώς λειτουργεί η εννοιολογική γνώση; Ό, τι κάνει ο νους είναι να αντιλαμβάνεται τη φυσική επαναληπτικότητα, την περιοδικότητα των φαινομένων και να αναζητά τα αίτιά τους. Προσδιορίζοντας τα αίτια στο περιβάλλον του χωροχρόνου, ο άνθρωπος κατανοεί τις συνθήκες, δηλαδή τις προϋποθέσεις της επαναληπτικότητας και βάσει αυτής της κατανόησης, προβλέπει το πώς θα αντιδράσει η ύλη όταν βρεθεί κάτω από παρόμοιες συνθήκες. Η πρόβλεψη, επομένως, βασίζεται στη μελέτη της επαναληπτικότητας των φαινομένων. Είναι ωστόσο η εμπειρία μας, ασφαλής βάση άντλησης πληροφοριών; Τα φυσικά φαινόμενα ιδωμένα ως εμπειρικά αποτελέσματα αλληλεπιδράσεων, κατηγοριοποιούνται με κριτήριο τις μεταβολές που προκαλούν. Ωστόσο, ο συνδυασμός των δυνάμεων της φύσης, προκειμένου να κατανοηθεί, πρέπει να βρει ένα ασφαλές διασκεπτικό μονοπάτι, μία οικεία κατάσταση, σε σχέση με την εμπειρία. Και πώς ο άνθρωπος κατανοεί τις γνώσεις που αποκτά διαμέσου της παρατήρησης; Έχοντας κατανοήσει ότι η φύση, για τη διατήρηση των ισορροπιών της, συντηρεί και εφαρμόζει τους ίδιους μηχανισμούς με τους οποίους έχει εφοδιάσει τον άνθρωπο, ο άνθρωπος συσχετίζει τις μεταβολές που συμβαίνουν στο περιβάλλον με τις μεταβολές που προκαλεί ο ίδιος με τις πράξεις του, οι οποίες είναι αποτελέσματα βουλητικών σκοπιμοτήτων. Τα αποτελέσματα αυτά ερμηνεύονται από τη λογική ως σχέσεις μεταξύ σκοπών-αποτελεσμάτων. Παρατηρώντας τα αποτελέσματα των φυσικών μηχανισμών στον εαυτό του, ο άνθρωπος, μπορεί να επιτύχει ασφαλή πρόβλεψη των αποτελεσμάτων των λειτουργιών των ίδιων μηχανισμών σε άλλα επίπεδα της φύσης. Επομένως, κάθε φαινόμενο μπορεί να προβλεφθεί, εφόσον περιέχει αναγνωρισμένα για την αποτελεσματικότητά του επίπεδα ασφαλούς σύγκρισης. Άλλωστε ο όρος φυσικός νόμος, φέρει το ειδικό βάρος του σκοπού, της τελικότητας, που είναι πέρα για πέρα χαρακτηριστικό του βουλητικού μας νου: η φύση δεν βούλεται, επομένως δεν μπορεί να παράγει νόμους. Ό,τι βούλεται είναι ο άνθρωπος, ο οποίος είναι προσανατολισμένος από την φύση να αναγνωρίζει λογικές σχέσεις στην αλληλεπίδραση των φυσικών φαινομένων. Επομένως όχι η φύση, αλλά ο άνθρωπος δημιουργεί τους νόμους, με βάση την αρχή της λογικής τακτοποίησης των παρατηρήσεών του. Πιο αναλυτικά, η καταγραφή και κατηγοριοποίηση των αποτελεσμάτων της παρατήρησης της ύλης, με βάση τους όρους παρατήρησης του εαυτού μας, συνιστά χρήσιμο εργαλείο κατανόησης του περιβάλλοντος: παρατηρώντας τα φαινόμενα, ο νους ανακαλεί τις εμπειρίες του, συνθέτοντας και ανασυνθέτοντάς τες. Όταν τα αποτελέσματα των παρατηρήσεων συμφωνούν με τις προβλέψεις, παράγεται γνώση. Έτσι ο νους μετατρέπει την γνώση των φαινομένων, σε αρχή τεκμηρίωσης συμπερασμάτων, την οποία χρησιμοποιεί για περαιτέρω αναλύσεις και συνθέσεις. Οι γνώσεις που αποκτώνται από την παρατήρηση, ανακαλούνται αυτόματα όταν ο νους αντιληφθεί ότι υπάρχει ιδανική σχέση ανάμεσά τους ώστε να συνδυαστούν. Πώς όμως λειτουργεί η εμπειρία; Η εμπειρία ομοιομορφίας της ύλης, δίνει την εντύπωση ότι οι μεταβολές στο περιβάλλον συνδέονται με κάποιου είδους σκοποθεσία. Ωστόσο, οι φυσικοί νόμοι δεν είναι παρά οι εννοιολογικές διατυπώσεις του πώς αντιλαμβανόμαστε εμείς οι ίδιοι την πραγματικότητα και με ποιους τρόπους μπορούμε να τη μεταβάλλουμε προς όφελός μας. Αναφέρονται δε, οι φυσικοί νόμοι, μόνο στη μία πλευρά του πανάρχαιου κοσμογονικού προβλήματος της αποσαφήνισης των τρόπων αλληλεπίδρασης των αισθητών. Μιας αλληλεπίδρασης που κινείται στα όρια μεταξύ συμφωνίας και αντιπαράθεσης, δεδομένου ότι η βεβαιότητα της φυσικής σταθερότητας δεν είναι τίποτε περισσότερο από μία προοπτική κατανόησης της πραγματικότητας σε μία δεδομένη στιγμή. Τι συμβαίνει ωστόσο όταν υπάρχει διάσταση μεταξύ προβλέψεων και αποτελεσμάτων; Στην περίπτωση αυτή, η θεωρία ανατρέχει στις εμπειρίες και τις ανασυνθέτει έτσι ώστε να επιτύχει τον πλησιέστερο δυνατό συνδυασμό. Έτσι λειτουργεί η λογική: ως πρωτότυπη εφαρμογή των δεδομένων της εμπειρίας, σε σχέση προς τον θεωρητικό κανόνα των προβλέψεων. Και ποια είναι η προϋπόθεση της πρωτοτυπίας όσον αφορά στον νου; Η προϋπόθεση αυτή δεν είναι άλλη από τη δημιουργικότητα: ο δημιουργικός νους, διαμέσου της παρατήρησης, αποκαλύπτει τους τρόπους με τους οποίους η ύλη αλληλεπιδρά, και δημιουργεί κάτι εντελώς διαφορετικό, όχι ως προς την πρώτη ύλη, αλλά ως προς την μορφή. Αυτή είναι δημιουργικότητα: η ενσάρκωση των λογικών συνθέσεων, το αποτύπωμα του νου στην ύλη. Εδώ εισέρχεται ο ρόλος της φιλοσοφίας, με σκοπό την αποσαφήνιση νέων και πιο σύνθετων μορφών και εννοιών, με γνώμονα τον βαθμό αποσαφήνισής τους. Ωστόσο αποσαφήνιση σημαίνει ταυτόχρονα και συστηματοποίηση, δηλαδή δημιουργική ενίσχυση των γνώσεων διαμέσου μιας ακλόνητης διαβεβαίωσης που θα ονομάζαμε προ-λογική ή καλύτερα αισθητική. Αποτελεί ωστόσο η βεβαιότητα που προκαλεί η αισθητική εποπτεία ισάξιο κριτήριο γνώσης με την λογική, ώστε να τοποθετεί τα συμπεράσματά της δίπλα στα επιστημονικά; Προσεγγίζοντας το ζήτημα από την επιστημονική σκοπιά, παρατηρούμε ότι από την περίοδο της ανθρωπιστικής επανάστασης και έπειτα, βρίσκεται σε εξέλιξη μία συστηματική προσπάθεια ανάδειξης της λογικής ως μοναδικής κατηγορίας του νου, η οποία λειτουργεί σε βάρος της γενικής προεπιστημονικής κοσμοθεωρίας περί ύπαρξης μιας ακλόνητα επιβεβαιωμένης γνώσης, που εμπειρικά προηγείται των εννοιών. Ο νους, για τους θεωρητικούς της επιστημονικής προσέγγισης, συνδέεται με τα αποτελέσματα των μελετών της ανατομίας του εγκεφάλου, οι οποίες αποκαλύπτουν σε σημαντικό βαθμό τα κέντρα των νοητικών διεργασιών. Στο περιβάλλον αυτό αντιπαρατέθηκαν οι δύο θεωρίες προσέγγισης των λειτουργιών του νου: ο δυϊσμός, με κύριο εισηγητή τον Descartes, ο οποίος υποστήριζε την αλήθεια των προεπιστημονικών αντιλήψεων, περί ενός νου ελεύθερου να ανατρέχει σε μη συμβατές προς την επιστημονική κοσμοθεωρία υποθέσεις όταν η λογική αδυνατεί να επιλύσει τα λογικά αδιέξοδα, και ο μονισμός, που εξέφραζε ότι η βιολογική ενότητα νου και πνεύματος είναι εν δυνάμει ικανή να καλύψει κάθε λογική αδυναμία. Σύμφωνα με τον δυϊσμό, εγκέφαλος και νόηση αποτελούν διαφορετικές υποστάσεις, οι οποίες συναντώνται και αλληλεπιδρούν μεταξύ τους: εγκέφαλος και νους, ύλη και πνεύμα συνθέτουν αλλά και συντίθενται στο περιβάλλον της ζώσας πραγματικότητας, και εκδηλώνονται ως γνώσεις. Ο νους χρησιμοποιεί ως πρώτη ύλη τον εγκέφαλο, ενώ ο εγκέφαλος μετέρχεται εξωλογικών υποθέσεων που φαντάζουν ικανές να περιγράψουν την υπερβατική προέλευση των αρχών που διέπουν την λειτουργία του. Δεδομένου ότι δεν υπήρχε αποδεδειγμένα σημείο αλληλεπίδρασης μεταξύ των δύο υποστάσεων, της υλικής και της υπερβατικής, ο Descartes υπέθεσε ότι η λογική ψυχή συνδέεται με την υλική υπόσταση στο εσωτερικό του εγκεφάλου και συγκεκριμένα στην περιοχή της επίφυσης. Στην πραγματικότητα, ο λόγος ήταν ότι κανείς δεν γνώριζε τίποτε για την λειτουργία της επίφυσης -ούτε σήμερα γνωρίζουμε επακριβώς τον ρόλο της- επομένως εύκολα μπορούσε να θεωρηθεί ως μηχανισμός σύνδεσης μεταξύ ψυχής και σώματος. Από την άλλη μεριά, οι οπαδοί της μονιστικής θεώρησης αναρωτήθηκαν πώς είναι δυνατόν μια άυλη υπόσταση όπως είναι η λογική ψυχή, να εντοπίζεται και να προκαλεί μεταβολές στο εσωτερικό του φθαρτού σώματος; Απάντηση στο λεγόμενο καρτεσιανό παράδοξο περί αλληλεπίδρασης μεταξύ των δύο υποστάσεων του ανθρώπου, άυλης και φθαρτής, επιχείρησαν να δώσουν κυρίως οι Γάλλοι εγκυκλοπαιδιστές και οι Γερμανοί υλιστές φιλόσοφοι, οι θέσεις των οποίων οδήγησαν σταδιακά στην αποπνευματοποίηση της νόησης. Από εκεί και έπειτα πειραματισμοί της βιολογίας και της νευροφυσιολογίας απέδειξαν την εξέλιξη του νευρικού συστήματος κατά την πορεία των γεωλογικών αιώνων από τα πρώιμα στάδια συγκέντρωσης νευρικών συμπλεγμάτων στις κατώτερες περιοχές του εγκεφαλικού φλοιού, προς τα ανώτερα. Αξίζει ωστόσο να σημειωθεί, ότι παρόλη την πρόοδο των νευροεπιστημών, πολλά ερωτήματα που αφορούν στη σύνδεση μεταξύ εγκεφάλου-νόησης και ερμηνείας νοητικών λειτουργιών που συνδέονται με την παραπάνω σχέση, παραμένουν αναπάντητα ακόμη και σήμερα. Ο μονισμός επιμένει ότι ο νους αποτελεί παράγωγο της ύλης και απορρίπτει ως μεταφυσική κάθε τοποθέτηση πέρα από τα όρια της ζώσας πραγματικότητας. Δεν προσπαθούμε να επιλύσουμε την παραπάνω διαμάχη, δεδομένου ο κύριος λόγος μελέτης και αποσαφήνισης θεμελιωδών ορισμών γύρω από την ποσότητα και το είδος της ενέργειας που διοχετεύεται στους νευρώνες δημιουργώντας ό,τι ο Honderich περιγράφει ως ενσυνείδητες εκδηλώσεις, βρίσκεται στα χέρια της επιστήμης. Η εγκεφαλοποίηση της νόησης, αν και -ορθά- συνδέθηκε με τα επιτεύγματα της λογικής, εντούτοις δημιούργησε μία αυτοπεποίθηση για την ανωτερότητα της λογικής ως μεθόδου ικανής, όχι μόνο να ερμηνεύει, αλλά και να κατευθύνει τα πράγματα, λειτουργώντας a priori ως μηχανισμός που εμπεριέχεται στο εσωτερικό τους. Τούτη η προοπτική, αν και κατευθυνόμενη από επιστημονικούς κύκλους και -κατά κανόνα- αντίθετη προς την φιλοσοφική μεθοδολογία, εντούτοις εκδηλώθηκε ως φιλοσοφία, διαιρεμένη μάλιστα σε κινήματα ή σχολές, με κοινό χαρακτηριστικό την βεβαιότητα, ότι η λογική ενυπάρχει μέσα στην φύση των πραγμάτων, και εκδηλώνεται νομοτελειακά. Μιλώ για τα κινήματα του θετικισμού, του λογικού θετικισμού και του ιστορικισμού, τα οποία συστηματοποιήθηκαν κατά τα μέσα του εικοστού αιώνα και εξάντλησαν την επιχειρηματολογία τους σε σύντομο χρονικό διάστημα. Και πώς η φιλοσοφία υπερασπίζεται το δικαίωμά της να αποσαφηνίζει επιστημονικές έννοιες με γνώμονα την δημιουργική προοπτική; Η απάντηση της φιλοσοφίας προέρχεται από μία ιστορική πορεία χιλιετιών, με βαθιές πολιτισμικές και κοινωνικές ρίζες. Ο νους, ως κινητήριος αρχή της γνώσης αλλά και των αξιών, της ηθικής, συνδέεται με έργα που έχουν ένα κοινό χαρακτηριστικό: είναι όλα παράγωγα αισθητικής και λογικής γνώσης. Φιλοσοφικά, ο νους, αρχικά, προσλαμβάνει αισθητικά το περίγραμμα, την μορφή μιας ιδέας, έπειτα την επεξεργάζεται λογικά, και εν τέλει την πραγματοποιεί. Η αισθητική δραστηριότητα, ως φιλοσοφική κατηγορία, εντοπίζεται στο αρχικό στάδιο της νοητικής λειτουργίας, ενώ η πραγματοποίηση στο τελικό. Τόσο η αισθητική δραστηριότητα, όσο και η λογική λειτουργούν σύμφωνα με έναν σκοπό: τη διασάφηση των ορίων πραγματικότητας· και βούληση είναι η λειτουργία, που ενεργοποιεί το υποκείμενο να πράξει σύμφωνα με τις επιταγές του σκοπού αυτού. Η διαίρεση του νου σε κατηγορίες έχει αφετηρία την σκέψη του Αριστοτέλη. Ο εισηγητής της λογικής επιστήμης πρότεινε τον διαχωρισμό των αρχών του νου, σύμφωνα με τον χαρακτήρα τους σε θεωρητικό, πρακτικό και ποιητικό. Ο νους, στο θεωρητικό επίπεδο επεξεργάζεται συλλογισμούς που οδηγούν σε περιγραφές γεγονότων, στο πρακτικό, συλλογισμούς που οδηγούν σε ηθικές αξιολογήσεις ενώ στο ποιητικό, συλλογισμούς που αποσκοπούν στη δημιουργία καλλιτεχνικών εκφράσεων και γενικότερα, ωφέλιμων έργων. Ο Benedetto Croce στο έργο του Estetica, σημειώνει ότι οι δύο μορφές του θεωρητικού πνεύματος η αισθητική εποπτεία και η λογική αποτελούν διαφορετικές, πλην ισότιμες μορφές γνώσης: κάθε έννοια περιέχει μία πλευρά αισθητική. Ως γνώση, η αισθητική εποπτεία δεν έχει ανάγκη λογικής επιβεβαίωσης· αντίθετα, η λογική επιβεβαίωση κατηγοριοποιεί, κατατάσσει και αναλύει αισθητικές πληροφορίες για να κατανοήσει τους νόμους που διέπουν το περιβάλλον. Ο πρώτος βαθμός του θεωρητικού μας νου, επομένως, χρησιμοποιεί ποικίλους τρόπους αποσαφήνισης των εισερχόμενων πληροφοριών, προκειμένου να δημιουργήσει και να μεταδώσει επικοινωνιακά μία μορφή. Το ερώτημα εδώ είναι εάν η αισθητική εποπτεία, περιέχει όλα εκείνα τα στοιχεία που μπορούν να γίνουν κατανοητά και να γενικευθούν κατά τον ίδιο τρόπο. Οι θεωρητικές βάσεις για την ανάδειξη ενός καθολικού κριτηρίου που επιβεβαιώνει την ομοιογένεια των αισθητικών γνώσεων τέθηκαν από τον David Hume. Ο Hume διαπίστωσε ότι όλοι έχουμε μέσα μας ένα έμφυτο προγνωστικό κριτήριο, το οποίο μας επιτρέπει να προσλαμβάνουμε τα συναισθήματα των συνανθρώπων μας. Διαμέσου της Συμπάθειας (empathy) όπως ονόμασε ο Hume την ενέργεια αυτή του νου, αλληλεπιδρούμε με τον συναισθηματικό κόσμο των συνανθρώπων μας, ακόμη και όταν δεν έχουμε ίδια γνώση των εμπειριών τους. Πρόκειται για έναν ενσυναίσθητο τρόπο επικοινωνίας, βασισμένο στην -κατά κύριο λόγο- ανάμνηση βιωμάτων καταγεγραμμένων στην προ-λογική περιοχή της εμπειρίας μας. Σήμερα η γενετική έχει ερμηνεύσει τη δυνατότητα αναγνώρισης των συναισθημάτων μεταξύ των ανθρώπων ως ειδική εκδήλωση ενός έμφυτου αλτρουισμού, ο οποίος είναι προγραμματισμένος να προσανατολίζει το θυμικό προς ό,τι ωφελεί το είδος μας, ενώ η νευροβιολογία ερευνά το ενδεχόμενο ύπαρξης εγκεφαλικών δομών που επεξεργάζονται και ενσωματώνουν τις ηθικές αξίες διαμέσου διαδικασιών ανταλλαγής-αφομοίωσης συμπεριφορών. Είναι επομένως, το συναίσθημα ενδιάθετος τρόπος επικοινωνίας; Παρόλο που ο Hume υπέθεσε ορθά μία προλογική λειτουργία, στην οποία «απευθύνεται η σκέψη», δηλαδή μία λειτουργία που προϋπάρχει και επιβεβαιώνει κάθε εννοιολογική αρχή, στην συνέχεια συνέδεσε αυτή την λειτουργία όχι με προλογικά χαρακτηριστικά, δηλαδή γνώσεις, αλλά με συναισθηματικές ποιότητες, δηλαδή ψυχολογικά αποτυπώματα εμπειριών. Δεν είναι ωστόσο το συναίσθημα ό,τι μεταδίδει την ενσυναίσθηση, αλλά η αισθητική εποπτεία. Συναισθηματικές εκδηλώσεις παρατηρούνται και σε άλογα είδη, συνδεδεμένες μάλιστα με συγκεκριμένες εμπειρίες ωφέλιμων ή μη ωφέλιμων καταστάσεων. Σε καμία περίπτωση ωστόσο αυτές οι εκδηλώσεις δεν είναι να δυνατόν να γενικευθούν μεταξύ των ζώων, να αποτελέσουν δηλαδή γνώση. Το συναίσθημα δεν λειτουργεί ως παραγωγός αισθητικών γνώσεων, ούτε ως γνωσιακός αναμεταδότης μεταξύ των κοινωνικών ατόμων, αλλά μάλλον ως λειτουργικός εκδείκτης του γεγονότος της αισθητικής εποπτείας. Συνοψίζουμε λοιπόν, αναφέροντας ότι με τον όρο αισθητική εποπτεία, φιλοσοφικά, συχνά εννοούμε την άμεση επιβεβαιωμένη εμπειρία, η οποία δεν χρειάζεται την λογική ανάλυση προκειμένου να αποκτήσει καθολική ισχύ: η βεβαιότητα για τον χρόνο, τον χώρο, τη μορφή των αντικειμένων, προέρχεται από παραστάσεις του νου που έχουμε σχηματίσει διαμέσου αισθητικής εποπτείας της πραγματικότητας, δηλαδή γνώσης των μορφών. Σύμφωνα με τον Croce, η λογική, όπως και η αισθητική εποπτεία, αποτελούν κατηγορίες του θεωρητικού μας νου. Η αισθητική εποπτεία αφορά στην ατομική στιγμή, ενώ η λογική στην καθολική. Αντίστοιχα, η βούληση και η ηθική, αναφέρονται στο πρακτικό επίπεδο του νου, και λειτουργούν η πρώτη ατομικά και η δεύτερη καθολικά. Η ατομικότητα του πρακτικού νου, της βούλησης, κατά τη γενίκευσή της, παράγει ηθική. Το γεγονός ότι τα κίνητρα των πράξεών μας μπορούν να αναλυθούν εννοιολογικά, να επιβεβαιωθούν διασκεπτικά ως προς το κύρος, την καθαρότητα και την αποτελεσματικότητά τους, είναι δηλωτικό του ότι η πρακτικότητα αλληλεπιδρά με τη λογική· πρόκειται για μία αλληλεπίδραση τόσο έντονη, ώστε κάθε διαχωρισμός της βούλησης από τη λογική, του σκοπού από τη γνώση που συνεπάγεται η ενέργειά της, να καθίσταται δυσχερής. Γιατί; Ο νους χρησιμοποιεί τις δυνάμεις του μεμονωμένα ή σε συνδυασμό, προκειμένου να εξυπηρετεί κατ’ αρχήν, τις ανάγκες της στιγμής. Αυτή η λειτουργία, παρόλο που αποτελεί a priori προδιάθεση, η οποία προηγείται κάθε σκοπού, εντούτοις αποτελεί ταυτόχρονα και σκοπό. Καταλήγουμε επομένως στο πρώτο συμπέρασμα, ότι η τάση του ανθρώπου να θέτει σκοπούς, αποτελεί παρακλάδι του ίδιου κορμού από τον οποίο προέρχονται οι φυσικές προδιαθέσεις. Και δεν θα ήταν δύσκολο να απαντούσαμε στο πώς η τάση αυτή μπορεί να συμπλεύσει με τη νοητότητα, εάν εξειδικεύαμε το ερώτημα από το γενικό στο ειδικό. Λέμε λοιπόν ότι, σημασία δεν έχει η πρώτη ύλη που χρησιμοποιεί ο νους, ούτε η προέλευσή της, αλλά η επεξεργασία της: αντίθετα με τα άλογα είδη, ο άνθρωπος μπορεί να παρατηρεί και να αναγνωρίζει τα δεδομένα των παρατηρήσεών του. Παρατηρώντας τον εαυτό του ως ειδικό μέρος του περιβάλλοντος στο οποίο ανήκει, ο άνθρωπος συνειδητοποιεί ότι είναι αυτόνομος ως προς το να σκέπτεται, να προβλέπει, να κρίνει, να θέτει σκοπούς και να πράττει. Η εμπειρία είναι η στέρεη βάση των αισθητικών προσλήψεων, των λογικών προβλέψεων και της βουλητικής πρακτικότητας, της ίδιας της ηθικής: διαμέσου των αποτελεσμάτων των μετρήσεων των φυσικών φαινομένων αναγνωρίζουμε τις ποιότητες, τις διαστάσεις και τις δυνάμεις της ύλης και κατανοούμε το περιβάλλον. Τι είναι όμως η ύλη και κατ’ επέκταση το περιβάλλον; Ύλη είναι η εμπειρία της αλληλεπίδρασης των δυνάμεων της περιρρέουσας ενέργειας στον τρισδιάστατο χώρο και μονοδιάστατο προς τα εμπρός χρόνο, τα συγχρονισμένα αποτελέσματα των οποίων αναγνωρίζουμε διαμέσου των αισθήσεών μας ως μορφές. Ό,τι λοιπόν δίνει υπόσταση στην ύλη είναι ο τρόπος με τον οποίο την προσλαμβάνουμε αισθητικά· και ο τρόπος με τον οποίο συσχετίζουμε τα αποτελέσματα των αισθητικών προσλήψεων είναι η λογική. Κατέχουμε επομένως την καθαρή γνώση των πραγμάτων; Αυτό είναι αδύνατο να συμβαίνει, δεδομένου ότι η φύση μας έχει εφοδιάσει με πρωταρχικά με μηχανισμούς παραγωγής γνώσεων μόνο χρήσιμων για την επιβίωσή μας. Η υπό όρους επαφή μας με τη γνώση, περιχαρακώνει τα όρια της εμπειρίας μας: μπορούμε να είμαστε βέβαιοι για την ύλη που μας περιβάλλει και για τον νου μας, δεδομένου ότι βιώνουμε τα αποτελέσματα της μεταξύ τους αλληλεπίδρασης. Η γνώση επομένως, ορίζεται και ορίζει την εμπειρία: την εμπειρία των αισθητικών μορφών, και την εμπειρία των εννοιών. Και η ειδική κατηγορία του νου που μας ωθεί να μεταβάλλουμε τις δυνάμεις του περιβάλλοντος σύμφωνα με τις επιδιώξεις μας είναι η βούληση, η οποία στη γενίκευσή της παράγει ηθική. Επομένως η βούληση καθοδηγεί την εμπειρία μας να κατακτά ό,τι είναι χρήσιμο για το συμφέρον του ατόμου και κατ’ επέκταση του είδους. Και πώς ο άνθρωπος οριοθετεί τα τις γνώσεις του; Οι νόμοι των φαινομένων, δεν είναι παρά τα αισθητικά αποτελέσματα των ενορατικών βεβαιοτήτων προς ορισμένες αρχές, οι οποίες μας φαίνονται αδιαπραγμάτευτες: η εναλλαγή ημέρας-νύχτας, η εναλλαγή των εποχών, η πορεία του χρόνου προς τα εμπρός, αποτελούν εμπειρικές επιβεβαιώσεις που αποδεχόμαστε, προκειμένου να προδιαγράψουμε τις ζωές, τα έργα μας και να περιχαρακώσουμε τα όρια των βουλήσεων και των πράξεών μας. Τι γίνεται όμως όταν η ίδια η νόηση ανατρέπει αυτούς τους κανόνες θέτοντας τη λογική υπεράνω της αισθητικής εποπτείας; Η σύγχρονη επιστήμη μπορεί να είναι βέβαιη για τη σχετικότητα του χώρου και του χρόνου μέσα στον οποίο υπάρχουμε και κινούμαστε. Ο χρόνος, παρόλο που είναι σχετικός, εντούτοις η κίνησή του γίνεται αντιληπτή από τις αισθήσεις μας ως σταθερή, με μονογραμμική πορεία προς τα εμπρός∙ λειτουργεί δηλαδή, η κίνηση στον χρόνο, ως κριτήριο εντοπισμού της θέσης μας στον τρισδιάστατο χώρο· απαντά, επομένως ο υπολογισμός του χρόνου, στο ερώτημα πότε, σε σχέση με το ερώτημα που∙ και αντίστροφα: ο υπολογισμός του χώρου απαντά στο ερώτημα που, σε σχέση με το πότε. Η σχετικότητα του χώρου και του χρόνου είναι -πέρα για πέρα- πραγματική, όσο πραγματική είναι η κίνηση της Γης γύρω από τον Ήλιο. Πρόκειται για μία αλήθεια η οποία, σε καμία περίπτωση δεν μπορεί να γίνει αντιληπτή από τις αισθήσεις, αλλά μόνον από τη λογική. Ας προσπαθήσουμε να φανταστούμε αισθητικά την σχετικότητα του χώρου και του χρόνου∙ ενός χρόνου που στρεβλώνεται, που δεν έχει αρχή, τέλος, που κινείται προς κάθε κατεύθυνση∙ και αντίστοιχα ενός χώρου αεικίνητου, ασταθή, και άμορφου. Πώς μπορεί να περιγραφεί μία τέτοια πραγματικότητα; Η απάντηση είναι ότι δεν μπορεί· και δεν μπορεί, γιατί, η αισθητική εποπτεία μας είναι κατασκευασμένη να αναγνωρίζει μόνο τρισδιάστατες μορφές. Η διαπίστωση ότι ο νους έχει την τάση να υπερβαίνει τα στενά δεσμά της αισθητικής εποπτείας, αν και φιλοσοφικά παραπέμπει στις πλατωνικές Ιδέες και το παράδειγμα του Σπηλαίου, εντούτοις ωθεί προς μία κατεύθυνση εντελώς διαφορετική από εκείνη της μεταφυσικής: στην κατεύθυνση μιας απαίτησης για διεύρυνση των ορίων της αισθητικής εποπτείας υπό την κατεύθυνση των λογικών συμπερασμάτων. Μπορεί, ωστόσο, ο άνθρωπος να υπερβεί τα εμπειρικά όρια των αισθητικών πληροφοριών και να κατανοήσει την βαθύτερη πραγματικότητα της εννοιολογικής γνώσης; Συνδυάζοντας αισθητικές μορφές, η φαντασία μπορεί να σχηματίζει ό, τι σύνθεση επιθυμεί: απλή, πολύπλοκη, αλλόκοτη, υπερβολική, ακόμη και νοσηρή ή αποτρόπαιη, αρκεί η πρώτη ύλη που χρησιμοποιεί να προέρχεται από το περιβάλλον της επιβεβαιωμένης αισθητικής εποπτείας. Πέρα από αυτά τα όρια, ο νους μας δεν μπορεί να αναγνωρίζει, να φαντάζεται, να συλλογίζεται. Πώς όμως η -επίσης ασύλληπτη για το νου μας- έννοια του απείρου γινόταν κατανοητή αιώνες πριν ανακαλυφθεί η θεωρία της σχετικότητας; Η κατανόηση της έννοιας του απείρου δεν αφορά στην εμπειρία της πραγματικότητας, αλλά στον τρόπο τακτοποίησης και υπολογισμού των όρων της με βάση τη οργάνωση συγκεκριμένων αισθητικών σημείων που αντιστοιχούν στη λογική γνώση: των αριθμών και των συμβόλων τους. Από τη μαθηματική σύνθεση εξαρτάται η λογική πορεία προς την απόδειξη. Όλοι οι αριθμοί εκφράζονται σύμφωνα με τα κριτήρια που εμείς επιλέγουμε. Μπορούμε ωστόσο να φανταστούμε άπειρους αριθμούς; Η απάντηση είναι όχι. Ο νους μας δεν είναι προγραμματισμένος να αποσαφηνίζει αισθητικά το άπειρο, επομένως δεν μπορεί ούτε να το φαντάζεται. Τότε, εφόσον δεν μπορούμε να φανταζόμαστε το άπειρο και -ως εκ τούτου- να το εκφράζουμε αισθητικά, πώς είναι δυνατό να συζητάμε για αυτό; Το γεγονός ότι δεν έχουμε αισθητική γνώση της του άπειρου, δεν σημαίνει ότι δεν μπορούμε να υποθέσουμε την ύπαρξή του. Επειδή η υπόθεση, ως διασκεπτική ενέργεια, αφορά καθαρά στην εννοιολογική γνώση, έπεται πως ό, τι υποθέτουμε, πρέπει να είμαστε σε θέση να το αποδεικνύουμε ή να το απορρίπτουμε, με βάση τη λογική. Πώς όμως ο θεωρητικός νους, μπορεί να λειτουργήσει κατευθείαν στο επίπεδο της λογικής, χωρίς προηγουμένως να έχει σχηματίσει το αισθητικό περίγραμμα, δηλαδή την μορφή του αποτελέσματος και της πορείας του προς αυτό; Η απάντηση είναι ότι το λογικό επίπεδο του νου μας μπορεί να υποθέσει χωρίς να μορφοποιήσει, εφόσον αντικαταστήσει τις αισθητικές μορφές με σύμβολα, με αισθητικο-λογικές παραστάσεις, που στην σύνθεσή τους μπορούν να περιχαρακώσουν λογικά τα όρια της ιδέας που υποθέτουμε. Οι παραστάσεις αυτές είναι οι αριθμοί και τα σύμβολά τους, ενώ η σύνθεσή τους είναι η μαθηματική πράξη. Είναι προφανές ότι η μαθηματική ανάλυση, εφόσον οδηγεί σε λογικά συμπεράσματα συνιστά γλώσσα, δηλαδή σύμβαση συνεννόησης, η οποία εξαρτάται από την ειδική γνώση των κανόνων της. Και πώς λειτουργεί η αισθητική γνώση στο επίπεδο αυτό; Η μαθηματική υπόθεση δεν περιέχει το προγνωστικό αισθητικό κριτήριο του αποτελέσματός της, επομένως, ουδόλως ενδιαφέρεται για την έκφραση. Η μαθηματική γλώσσα εικονοποιείται και αποτυπώνεται διαμέσου μορφών, η σύνθεση των οποίων γενικεύεται αναφορικά προς έναν συγκεκριμένο σκοπό: εκείνον της απόδειξης. Είναι επομένως, οι αριθμοί και τα μαθηματικά σύμβολα αισθητικά μεταδοτές μορφές, προσανατολισμένες να ολοκληρώνουν την λογική απαίτηση. Και η βούληση δίνει την εντολή στον θεωρητικό νου να περιορίζει κάθε αυθορμητισμό, ώστε οι μαθηματικές μορφές να προσανατολίζονται μόνο προς τον λογικό σκοπό της απόδειξης. Παρόλο λοιπόν που οι αριθμοί και τα μαθηματικά σύμβολα περιέχουν την αισθητική βεβαιότητα που παράγεται από την ενέργεια της απεικόνισής τους, σε καμία περίπτωση δεν αποτυπώνουν αισθητικά την γνώση του μαθηματικού αποτελέσματος. Η διασκεπτική ενέργεια, επομένως, όταν λειτουργεί μαθηματικά, δεν μπορεί να φανταστεί το αποτέλεσμά της, παρά μόνο να το διατυπώσει αριθμητικά. Αυτό συμβαίνει γιατί οι ίδιοι οι αριθμοί, παρόλο που αναφέρονται στην πραγματικότητα, εντούτοις δεν αποτελούν πρωτογενείς μορφές ζώσας εμπειρίας, αλλά δευτερογενείς μορφές συμβάσεων διευθέτησής της, δηλαδή αναπαραστάσεις εμπειριών. Επομένως: δεν μπορούμε να φανταστούμε ένα μαθηματικό αποτέλεσμα, παρά μόνο να οδηγηθούμε λογικά σε αυτό, δεδομένου ότι δεν μπορούμε να έχουμε αισθητική γνώση των μαθηματικών υπολογισμών, αλλά μόνον αισθητική γνώση της εικονικής αναπαράστασής τους και εμπειρία της εφαρμογής των αποτελεσμάτων τους. Για παράδειγμα: όταν σκέφτομαι την πράξη 2 x 2 = 4, κατανοώ τον υπολογισμό, συμπεραίνω λογικά ότι με τον ίδιο τρόπο 4 x 4 = 16 και, κατ’ επέκταση, φαντάζομαι την εφαρμογή της αρχής του πολλαπλασιασμού σε ολόκληρο το φάσμα της εμπειρίας μου· μπορώ μάλιστα λειτουργώντας αντίστροφα, να φανταστώ τη μαθηματική πράξη της διαίρεσης. Παρόλο όμως, που, σε αλληλεπίδραση με τη βούληση μπορώ να προσανατολίσω τη λογική μου στην αποκάλυψη και άλλων μαθηματικών αναλογιών, δεν μπορώ να διαισθανθώ το αποτέλεσμά τους, παρά μόνο να το υπολογίσω, να το συσχετίσω δηλαδή με αντίστοιχες αναλογίες και να το διατυπώσω-περιγράψω με βάση τη μαθηματική απεικόνιση. Το ερώτημα είναι εάν, στον μαθηματικό συλλογισμό περιορίζεται η χρησιμότητα της εκφραστικής δραστηριότητας σε ένα σημείο καθαρά απεικονιστικό, και είναι η βεβαιότητα του συμπεράσματος ό, τι ρυθμίζει τις βουλήσεις των υποκειμένων προς την κατεύθυνση της μεταβολής της πραγματικότητας. Ο νους υποθέτει ένα αποτέλεσμα και πηγαίνει προς αυτό, όχι βάσει μορφών ή εκφράσεων, αλλά βάσει αποδεικτικών κανόνων: οι μαθηματικοί κανόνες, σε αντίθεση με τους κανόνες της λογικής που προϋποθέτουν την αλήθεια του κριτηρίου της αισθητικής εποπτείας, μπορούν να προχωρήσουν σε λογικές συνθέσεις και ανασυνθέσεις, χωρίς να γνωρίζουν ενορατικά την πορεία προς το αποτέλεσμα. Το έλλειμμα της αισθητικής βεβαιότητας όπως είπαμε, αναλαμβάνουν οι αριθμοί και τα μαθηματικά σύμβολα, τα οποία προσλαμβάνονται από το νου ως καθολικά αναγνωρισμένες ποιότητες, ως γλώσσα. Απομακρύνοντας την φιλοσοφία από τον παλιό θεωρητικό μανδύα των κατηγοριών μπορεί, ο καθαρός νους, να θέσει τα θεμέλια για μία νέα βάση, η οποία θα αντέχει στα συμπεράσματα της μαθηματικής σχετικότητας. Μία τέτοια κατεύθυνση θα απομάκρυνε την αισθητική αλλά και την ηθική φιλοσοφία από τον από τον εφιάλτη της αποπραγματοποίησης. Πράγματι λοιπόν, η επιστημονική γνώση μπορεί να οδηγήσει στην παραγωγή λογικών συμπερασμάτων ανεξάρτητα και όχι δίπλα στην αισθητική εποπτεία, όπως μέχρι σήμερα παραδέχεται η φιλοσοφία. Η αισθητική εποπτεία, παρόλο που αποτελεί ανεξάρτητη μορφή γνώσης, δεν μπορεί να δημιουργήσει μορφές πέρα από τα όρια των αισθήσεων, επομένως δεν μπορεί να ακολουθήσει τις επιστημονικές αρχές. Ωστόσο, το ότι η λογική υπερισχύει των αισθήσεων -βάζοντας έτσι ερωτηματικό στα όσα μέχρι σήμερα συζητάμε σε φιλοσοφικό επίπεδο γύρω από την αισθητική εποπτεία- δεν είναι ενδεικτικό του γεγονότος, ότι η φιλοσοφία έχει πάψει πλέον στην ολότητά της, να αποτελεί την θεωρητική μήτρα της επιστήμης. Αρκεί να αναλογιστούμε ότι η απάντηση στο λεγόμενο καρτεσιανό παράδοξο που έχουμε ήδη αναφερθεί, ως σημείο κορύφωσης της διαμάχης μεταξύ μονισμού και δυϊσμού, δόθηκε κυρίως από φιλοσόφους, Γάλλους εγκυκλοπαιδιστές και οι Γερμανούς υλιστές, οι θέσεις των οποίων οδήγησαν σταδιακά στην αποπνευματοποίηση της νόησης. Ήρθε λοιπόν η στιγμή που η φιλοσοφία πρέπει να αναλάβει πρωτοβουλία, επανεκκινώντας τις αρχές της επινοώντας νέες κατηγορίες ή νέους συσχετισμούς κατηγοριών, με βάση τα αδιαπραγμάτευτα πορίσματα της επιστήμης. Υποστηρίζουμε το σημείο αυτό ανατρέχοντας δειγματοληπτικά σε κάποιες εύστοχες παρατηρήσεις επιστημόνων, ο εννοιολογικός προσανατολισμός των οποίων εμπίπτει και στην μελέτη του φάσματος των φιλοσοφικών προοπτικών. Ξεκινάμε με την παραδοχή του βιολόγου-ζωολόγου Nikolaas Tinbergen (1907-1988), ότι η ηθολογία, ως μελέτη της συμπεριφοράς των ζώων και των ανθρώπων, δεν έχει ακόμη αποδείξει ότι η επίδραση του περιβάλλοντος μπορεί να επηρεάσει τις συμπεριφορές πέρα από τα όρια των φυσικών καταβολών μας. Αποφεύγοντας τη θετικιστική προοπτική και ανοίγοντας ένα μονοπάτι συνεργασίας μεταξύ θετικών και ανθρωπιστικών επιστημών, ο Ολλανδός ζωολόγος παραδέχεται ότι, ένα τέτοιο ενδεχόμενο -το οποίο πρέπει να εξεταστεί σε σχέση με την εξελικτική θεωρία- αφορά στους κλάδους της φυσιολογίας, της ψυχολογίας και εν γένει των ανθρωπιστικών επιστημών. Ωστόσο, συμπληρώνουμε εδώ, ότι παρόλες τις γενικές αρχές τους, βιολογία και θετικές επιστήμες δεν μπορούν να εισδύσουν στον πυρήνα της ατομικότητας καθενός. Σε όλα τα βιολογικά είδη, η μελέτη της ατομικής αντίδρασης στα ερεθίσματα του περιβάλλοντος είναι αρκετή ώστε να συναχθούν συμπεράσματα αντιπροσωπευτικά για το σύνολο του είδους. Κάτι τέτοιο όμως δεν ισχύει για τον άνθρωπο, δεδομένου ότι η ατομικότητά του αποτελεί ξεχωριστή, προσωποποιημένη παρουσία, συνειδητά ολοκληρωμένη ψυχική, σωματική και νοητική οντότητα. Έργο δε, της ανθρώπινης ατομικότητας είναι η παραγωγή γνώσεων, με βάση το προσωπικό αισθητήριο και η μετάδοσή της στο περιβάλλον της ομάδας. Το γεγονός ότι η ομάδα μπορεί να αναγνωρίζει την αλήθεια των ατομικών γνώσεων και να θεμελιώνει στην βάση της καθολικές εννοιλογικές αρχές, αποτελεί πάγια φιλοσοφική θέση γύρω από το γεγονός ότι οι συμπεριφορές, δεν προϋπάρχουν του νου, αλλά εξελίσσονται, η δε ομοιότητά τους δεν οφείλεται σε μία ακαθόριστη λογική οντότητα που υφίσταται ανεξάρτητα από την ατομική υπόσταση του προσώπου που σκέπτεται και βούλεται, αλλά εξελίσσεται επιλεκτικά μέσα από συνειδητές διεργασίες επιβιωμάτων και αναβιώσεων. Η θέση τουTinbergen και στην επικαιροποιείται και επαληθεύεται σαράντα περίπου έτη μετά από τον Ζωολόγο Richard Dawkins. Αναφερόμενος κυρίως στο επίπεδο της σχέσης μεταξύ Ηθολογίας και Ανθρωπιστικών Επιστημών ο Dawkins επισημαίνει ήδη από τις πρώτες γραμμές του έργου του Εγωιστικό Γονίδιο, την αναγκαιότητα συνεργασίας μεταξύ των δύο παραπάνω κλάδων, σημειώνοντας ότι οι Θετικές Σχολές των Πανεπιστημίων, δεν καταπιάνονται με τη φιλοσοφική αξία της Ζωολογίας· και αντίστροφα, ότι οι Σχολές των Ανθρωπιστικών Επιστημών δεν αναφέρονται στα συμπεράσματα της σύγχρονης επιστήμης. Ίσως λοιπόν, το γεγονός ότι η μελέτη λογικών συμπερασμάτων σύμφωνα με το εννοιολογικό κριτήριο της επιστήμης, στην εξέλιξή του δημιουργεί μία νέα ανάγκη εξισορρόπησης του προλογικού-αισθητικού και λογικού επιπέδου του νου μας, αρχικά όχι με βάση την κατανόηση των μορφών, αλλά της δημιουργίας ενός κοινωνικο-πολιτισμικού περιβάλλοντος, ικανού να υποδεχτεί απροκατάληπτα και χωρίς πολιτισμικό δέος, τις επιστημονικές αλήθειες. Μπορεί κάτι τέτοιο να καταστεί εφικτό; Εφόσον η ανθρώπινη διάνοια μπορεί να ξεπερνά την εμπειρία της υπολογίζοντας διαστάσεις πέρα από τα όριά της, σημαίνει ότι είναι προγραμματισμένη από τη φύση να λειτουργεί στο επίπεδο αυτό. Και ο νους μας, όντας αρχή που αυτοκαθορίζεται αλλά και εξελίσσεται, αποτελεί το αίτιο των προβλημάτων που θέτει στον εαυτό του. Άλλωστε οι φιλοσοφικές κατηγορίες όπως τις έχουμε κατατάξει σε αισθητική, λογική, ατομική-βουλητική και ηθική, είναι όροι προσαρμοσμένοι στις ανάγκες του φιλοσοφικού συστήματος και όχι το ίδιο το φιλοσοφικό σύστημα. Παρόλο λοιπόν που φαίνονται πεπερασμένες και οικουμενικές, οι λογικές λειτουργίες υπόκεινται στις αρχές της οργάνωσης και δημιουργούν απεριόριστους αριθμούς ειδικών ταξινομήσεων. Ολοκληρώνουμε λοιπόν αφήνοντας ανοικτή την παρακαταθήκη των Tinmbergen και Dawkins και την από κοινού επισήμανσή τους, όσον αφορά στην προσέγγιση της Επιστήμης από την Φιλοσοφία και αντίστροφα. Η επισήμανση-πρόταση αυτή αφορά στην εξέταση του ρόλου των συμπερασμάτων της επιστήμης ως κριτηρίου διαμόρφωσης συμπεριφορών, αλλά και διεύρυνσης των ορίων του νου, σε μία ολότελα διαφορετική βάση από αυτές που έχουν ακολουθηθεί μέχρι σήμερα: στη βάση της δημιουργίας νέων ευκαιριών για φυσική επιλογή. ΒΙΒΛΙΟΓΡΑΦΙΑ 1) Γρηγόρης Γκιζέλης, Το πολιτισμικό σύστημα, ο σημειωτικός και επικοινωνιακός χαρακτήρας του, εκδόσεις Γρηγορόπουλος, Αθήνα, 1980. 2) Benedetto Croce, Estetica come scienza dell’ espressione e linguistica generale, Adelphi, Milano, 2005 (seconda edizione). 3) Dawkins Richard, Το εγωιστικό γονίδιο, μετάφραση-επιμέλεια-εισαγωγή στην ελληνική έκδοση, Μαργαρίτης Λουκάς, Τσουκαλαδάκης Αθανάσιος, φιλολογική επιμέλεια Μπουκάλας Παντελής, εκδόσεις Σύναλμα, Αθήνα, 1988. 4) Hume David, Κείμενα αυτοβιογραφικά, γνωσιολογικά, ηθικά, μετάφραση Μ. Γούναρη, Χ. Μησοπούλου, εισαγωγή-επιμέλεια Μαρία Πουρνάρη, εκδόσεις Εκκρεμές, Αθήνα, 2006. 5) Victor Kraft, Ο κύκλος της Βιέννης και η γέννηση του νεοθετικισμού, εκδόσεις Γνώση, Αθήνα, 1986. 6) Θεοδόσης Πελεγρίνης, Ηθική φιλοσοφία, εκδόσεις Ελληνικά Γράμματα, β΄ έκδοση, Αθήνα, 1997. 7) Θεοδόσης Πελεγρίνης, Οι πέντε εποχές της φιλοσοφίας, εκδόσεις Ελληνικά Γράμματα, β΄έκδοση, Αθήνα, 1997. 8) Nikolaas Tinbergen et al, Ηθολογία, «Επιστημονική Σκέψη 1900-1960», επιμέλεια R. Harré, μετάφραση Δημοσθένης Κούρτοβικ, εκδόσεις Μορφωτικού Ιδρύματος Εθνικής Τράπεζας, Αθήνα, 1982. 9) Windelband W., Heimsoeth H., Εγχειρίδιο της Ιστορίας της Φιλοσοφίας, Β΄ Τόμος. «Η Μεσαιωνική Φιλοσοφία - η φιλοσοφία της Αναγέννησης - η φιλοσοφία του Διαφωτισμού», μετάφραση Ν. Σκουτερόπουλος, Γ΄ ανατύπωση, εκδόσεις Μορφωτικού Ιδρύματος Εθνικής Τράπεζας, Αθήνα, 2003. 10) John Z. Young, Ο εγκέφαλος και οι φιλόσοφοι, Εκδόσεις Κάτοπτρο, Μετάφραση Μυρτώ Αντωνοπούλου, Αθήνα, 1991. (shrink)

SOCIOLOGIA DO TRABALHO: O CONCEITO DO TRABALHO DA ANTIGUIDADE AO SÉCULO XVI -/- SOCIOLOGY OF WORK: THE CONCEPT OF WORK OF ANTIQUITY FROM TO THE XVI CENTURY -/- RESUMO -/- Ao longo da história da humanidade, o trabalho figurou-se em distintas posições na sociedade. Na Grécia antiga era um assunto pouco, ou quase nada, discutido entre os cidadãos. Pensadores renomados de tal época, como Platão e Aristóteles, deixaram a discussão do trabalho para um último plano. Após várias transformações sociais entre (...) diferentes eras e povos, o trabalho foi ganhando espaço nos debates entre os povos, como os caldeus, hebreus e romanos. O trabalho conferiu-se no escopo da discussão social. Na Idade Média, com Agostinho, Santo Aquino e outros o labor foi concebido como algo benéfico e divino. O que se via como algo “escravo” ao povo, transformou-se em necessidade e benevolência divina. -/- Palavras-chave: Conceito; Trabalho; História; Definição. -/- ABSTRACT -/- Throughout the history of mankind, work has figured itself in different positions in society. In ancient Greece it was a little matter, or almost nothing, discussed among the citizens. Renowned thinkers of such a time, like Plato and Aristotle, left the discussion of the work for a last plan. After several social transformations between different eras and peoples, work was gaining space in the debates among peoples, such as the Chaldeans, Hebrews and Romans. The work has taken place within the scope of social discussion. In the Middle Ages, with Augustine, Saint Aquinas and others the work was conceived as something beneficial and divine. What was seen as something “slave” to the people, became need and divine benevolence. -/- Keywords: Concept; Work; History; Definition. -/- BASES TEMÁTICAS DESSE TRABALHO -/- ➢ O trabalho é um conceito construído socialmente; -/- ➢ A modernidade trouxe consigo mudanças significativas quanto à valorização do trabalho; -/- ➢ A origem dos mercados de trabalho, juntamente com o surgimento do capitalismo, minimizou o trabalho como um mero emprego assalariado; -/- ➢ O trabalho, no entanto, apresenta múltiplas manifestações nas nossas sociedades. -/- 1. A VISÃO GREGA DE TRABALHO -/- Comecemos pelos gregos, uma civilização excitante que, durante muitos séculos antes de Cristo, já começava a elaborar riquíssimas reflexões sobre vários aspectos da vida humana. No entanto, surpreende aqueles de nós que já ler os primeiros filósofos gregos, como entre tantas análises rigorosas e “diálogos”, um elemento tão central na vida social dos povos, como o trabalho havia tido escassa repercussão. A explicação só faz sentido, justamente, ao analisar a valorização que esses grandes pensadores tinham acerca do nosso objeto de estudo que é o trabalho. Embora, como supracitado, os gregos não tivessem uma visão unânime sobre o trabalho, não é menos certo assinalar que para esta civilização o trabalho foi considerado um fato altamente desvalorizado. O trabalho, para eles, dado a sua vinculação com a dimensão de constrangimento e necessidades, limitava a liberdade dos indivíduos, condição indispensável para integrar o mundo da “pólis” na qualidade de cidadão. O homem livre realizava atividades absolutamente desinteressadas: a atividade intelectual (que não era considerada trabalho) fazia parte do ócio e da contemplação. O trabalho, reservado apenas aos escravos, como bem sinala Hopenhayn (1955), significava uma mera função produtiva. Portanto, o escravo passou a ser unicamente uma força de trabalho. Como tal, ele não tem personalidade e pertence ao seu mestre, como uma coisa entre muitas. Como objeto de propriedade, escapa ao pensamento antropológico que domina a filosofia sofista e socrática, porque para o cidadão grego falar de escravo não implica um sujeito pensante, senão uma coisa ou, no máximo, a força. Também escapa ao pensamento platônico, porque, como uma coisa, parece totalmente desvalorizado na construção idealista-dualista da realidade (HOPENHAYN, 1988. p. 23 – Tradução própria). -/- Três termos fundamentais que devemos recordar da tradição grega: -/- 1 – Ponos: penalidade, fadiga; -/- 2 – Banausia: trabalho mecânico, e -/- 3 – Ergon: realização. -/- Vejamos como essa noção de trabalho é construída como algo servil (ponos), ao qual uma visão positiva de lazer e contemplação foram contrastadas como uma atividade puramente humana e libertadora. As raízes do supracitado são encontradas no valor eticamente supremo da autarquia socrática. Segundo essa noção alcunhada por Sócrates (469-399 a.C.), todo aquele que trabalha está submetido tanto à matéria como aos homens para quem trabalha. Nessa medida, sua vida carece de autonomia e, portanto, de valor moral. Naturalmente, não só os escravos, mas também qualquer trabalhador dedicado a todos os tipos de tarefas manuais, foram desprezados por um pensamento helênico indubitavelmente aristocrático. Para Platão (427-347 a.C.), de origem aristocrática, descendente do último rei de Atenas e discípulo de Sócrates, a autarquia continua a ser perpetrada como um valor ético supremo e, em consonância com os interesses da aristocracia fundiária, afirmava que somente a agricultura evocava autêntica autonomia. Dessa forma, o pensamento platônico restringiu a participação política a escravos, comerciantes e artesãos. Todos eles têm em comum a dependência das condições materiais em que produzem e trocam mercadorias. O plano político estará intimamente relacionado ao econômico-trabalhista: somente quem é capaz de governar a si mesmo (e como sabemos, acontece com aqueles que não trabalham ou possuem terras), pode governar os outros. Somente a liberação total da prática mundana do trabalho abre as possibilidades de dedicar-se, como fez Platão, à contemplação (σχολή), à filosofia e às ciências, e por meio disso saber distinguir o bem do mal, o justo do injusto, o verdadeiro do falso. Quem poderia dedicar-se a tais “tarefas nobres”? Evidentemente, aqueles que não precisam fazer parte da população trabalhadora, isto é, a aristocracia. Esse sistema de governo aristocrático foi defendido, obviamente, por Platão. Em sua “A República” sinala que o governo perfeito é o aristocrático, e que a este se sucedem a timocracia (governo dos guerreiros), a oligarquia (dos ricos) e a democracia (“governo daqueles que amam o prazer, a mudança e a liberdade), que perece por seus excessos nas mãos de alguns homem audaz que se coloca à frente do povo para defender a democracia e “do tronco desses protetores do povo nasce o tirano”, dando origem à tirania.(2) Em seu diálogo “Político” podemos ler: Aqueles que possuem a si mesmos através da compra, e aqueles que podem ser chamados sem nenhuma discussão de escravos, não participam da arte real [...] E todos aqueles que são livres, se dedicam espontaneamente a atividades servis como as supracitadas, transportando e trocando produtos da agricultura e de outras artes; que nos mercados, indo de cidade em cidade por mar e terra, trocando dinheiro por outras coisas ou por dinheiro, o que chamamos de banqueiros, comerciantes, marinheiros e revendedores, poderão, por acaso, reivindicar para eles algo da ciência política? [...], mas também aqueles que estão dispostos a prestar serviços a todos por salários ou por subsídios, nunca os encontramos participantes na arte de governar [...] Como os chamaremos? Como você acabou de dizer agora: servidores, mas não governantes dos estados (PLATÃO, 1983. pp. 237-8 – adaptado). Esse estado ideal que Platão projetou em seus ensinamentos estava longe, a propósito, da democracia ateniense defendida por Péricles. De certa forma, Platão só confiava em uma elite no poder constituída por uns poucos (oligarquia) que não deveriam se render às tarefas servis da produção e circulação das riquezas. Para ele, as crianças aristocráticas deveriam ser selecionadas desde a infância, recebendo uma educação suficiente tanto em filosofia quanto nas “artes da guerra”. Aos trinta anos, eles já seriam capazes de passar por um exame donde seriam selecionados os “filósofos-reis” encarregados do governo. De fato, no entanto, suas concepções de governo nunca poderiam ser executadas com pureza; ou pela chamada “contrarrevolução aristocrática”, ou pela invasão estrangeira subsequente. Essa visão do trabalho que estamos a analisar, como bem sinala Henri Arvon (1914- 1992), conduz a uma sociedade basicamente conservadora e estancada no produtivo. (3) A ideia de liberdade, ócio e contemplação como valores superiores, propõe um desprezo pelo trabalho que, como vimos, é uma atividade puramente transformadora. Há aqueles que, mediante tal contestação, arriscam fundamentar que grande parte do subdesenvolvimento tecnológico na Grécia derive justamente a essa cultura tão peculiar em relação ao trabalho. Caso contrário, se houvesse escravos, por que avançar em conhecimentos que facilitaram o trabalho? Não nos surpreende, nesse sentido, que uma civilização capaz de criar conhecimentos espetaculares em áreas particularmente complexas como a geometria (Euclides), por outro lado, não soubesse (ou não gostaria) de avançar em conhecimentos técnicos aplicáveis ao campo econômico-trabalhista. Já vimos como a cidadania era o escopo da de alguns aristocratas da civilização helênica. Hannah Arendt (1906-1975) sinalava que os gregos distinguiam entre os escravos, os inimigos vencidos (dmôes ou douloi) que estavam encarregados do trabalho doméstico, e os demiourgoi, homens livres para se deslocarem do domínio privado para o público. Somente depois do século V, sinala Arendt, a pólis começou a classificar as ocupações de acordo com os esforços que eles exigiam. Nisso, Aristóteles (384-322 a.C.) teve que desempenhar um papel preponderante que colocou aqueles cujo “corpo está mais deformado” na faixa mais baixa. Ele não admitiria, portanto, aos estrangeiros (os escravos), nem tampouco aos banausoi, antes dos demiourgoi, trabalhadores e artesãos que deviam resignar-se ao mundo dos “oikos”. Estes, não só estavam submetidos à necessidade como eram incapazes de ser livres, mas também incapazes de governar a parte “animal” do seu ser (República, 590). Serão eles, não obstante, aqueles que permitem o florescimento da chamada democracia helênica, pois, quem senão os trabalhadores (escravos ou artesãos) poderia manter com seu esforço o ócio e a contemplação dos “homens livres”, cidadãos do mundo? Como foi supracitado, será Aristóteles quem delimitará ainda mais os direitos de cidadania. Sua cidade ideal, como em Platão, diferenciaria os governantes dos governados. O primeiro, constituído pela classe militar, estadistas, magistrados e sacerdócio. O segundo, pelos agricultores, artesãos e os camponeses. Com os comerciantes há uma certa ambivalência: embora ele considerava uma ocupação antinatural, estava disposto a admiti-los até certo ponto em sua cidade ideal, cuja base seguiria sendo a escravidão. Em sua Política, ele explana: A cidade mais perfeita não fará do trabalhador manual (artesão) um cidadão. Caso o admitir como tal, a definição de virtude cívica [...] não alcança todos os cidadãos, nem apenas os homens livres, mas só os que estão isentos de trabalhos indispensáveis à sobrevivência. Destes, os que estão a serviço de um só indivíduo, são escravos; os que servem a comunidade, são trabalhadores manuais (artesãos) ou trabalhadores não qualificados (ARISTÓTELES, 1998. p. 203). Tampouco compreenderá os agricultores como reivindicava Platão: “Tampouco deverão ser agricultores os futuros cidadãos, pois para a formação de sua virtude e para a atividade política, o ócio é necessário”. Essa prolifera discussão ocorreu em uma civilização onde começaram a surgir as primeiras mudanças produtivas derivadas do crescimento econômico feito do descobrimento do ferro, e sua posterior divisão do trabalho, onde florescem os grupos de comerciantes e a aristocracia proprietária de terras começa a dominar. Os pensadores da época, mais aliados a estes últimos, contrariavam os princípios da acumulação comercial. Em sua Política, Aristóteles aconselha os cidadãos a absterem-se de qualquer profissão mecânica e de toda especulação mercantil. O primeiro, porque limita intelectualmente, e o segundo, porque degrada o ético. Somente o ócio (scholé), para esses pensadores, permite a virtuosidade e a capacidade de julgar. A Koinonia politiké (comunidade dos homens livres) era típica daqueles que não precisavam de trabalho, relegando a população trabalhadora ao mero âmbito da reprodução material (chrematistiké), o que só era possível em um contexto de alta divisão do trabalho onde um grupo minoritário (oligarquia) vivia à custa do trabalho da maioria (muitos deles escravos). O termo “ócio” provém de “scholé”, entendido entre os gregos como tempo para si mesmo, para a contemplação (sjolé) e, portanto, para a formação (scholé = escola). Desse ponto de vista, o ócio para os gregos é um fim em si mesmo. Entre os romanos, no entanto, adquire outra conotação. Em latim octium, designa o campo contraposto ao neo-octium (negócio), ou seja, é o tempo de descanso que permite dedicar-se ao negócio. Tal visão sobre o trabalho e o ócio, respectivamente, não foi, no entanto, como supracitado no início, unanimemente desenvolvida em toda a história da civilização helênica. Os textos de Homero(4) (séculos IX e VIII a.C.) são mais reservados a respeito, mas acima de tudo, na Grécia antiga encontramos autores como Hesíodo (século VIII), que postulavam outras teses. Para o autor de “Os trabalhos e os dias”, o trabalho se constituía em um justo e necessário castigo que Zeus impôs aos homens pelo pecado de Prometeu. Note a similitude com a crença bíblica que veremos adiante. Hesíodo explana: Lembre-se sempre do meu conselho e trabalhe [...] os deuses e os homens se indignam com quem ocioso vive, semelhante em caráter aos zangões sem ferrão, que consomem o esforço das abelhas [...] O trabalho não é nenhuma desonra; desonra é não trabalhar (HESÍODO, 2012. p. 93 e 95). Também entre alguns sofistas (aqueles que vendiam sua sabedoria a quem gostaria de comprá-la), como Protágoras (século V a.C.), “o primeiro e o maior deles”(5), coloca o estudo e a arte (técnica) na mesma faixa, e Antifonte (século V a.C.) disse: “[...] e as honras e preços, e toda a espécie de encorajamento que Deus incumbiu aos homens, devem necessariamente resultar de fadiga e suor”. Como conviveu a cultura grega com essas noções tão diferentes? Tenho a ideia, juntamente com Hopenhayn, que o desprezo dos pensadores gregos pelo manual foi causado pela violência dos guerreiros e dos aristocratas de plantão, que impuseram aos seja derrotados o jugo. Do trabalho árduo e difícil. Porque a aristocracia queria trabalhar nessas condições? A própria divisão do trabalho em si possibilitou o crescimento da civilização helênica, estava gerando diferentes classes com visões distintas sobre o trabalho. Por outro lado, surgiram os camponeses pobres, os derrotados e aqueles que tinham que viver do trabalho artesanal. Essas pessoas, na maioria das vezes isoladas do mundo da “polis”, gerariam suas próprias leituras dos acontecimentos, seus próprios espaços para o desenvolvimento cultural, inclusive sua própria religião, distante daquela imposta pela visão aristocrática, olímpica, contemplativa e estética dos “homens livres”. -/- 2. A VISÃO DOS CALDEUS ACERCA DO TRABALHO -/- A leitura de outros povos e civilizações sobre este tema tem sido diferente. Entre os caldeus, por exemplo, a visão pejorativa analisada entre os gregos não é registrada. Nas escrituras sagradas da religião de Zaratustra (o Avesta), lemos: “É um santo aquele que constrói uma casa, na qual mantém o fogo, o gado, sua mulher, seus filhos, os bons párias. Aquele que faz a terra produzir trigo, que cultiva os frutos do campo, cultiva corretamente a pureza” (HOPENHAYN, 1988. p. 35). Para os caldeus, como se pode observar, o trabalho implica, de uma posição diametralmente oposta à helênica, uma contribuição na ordem econômica, mas também na espiritual. Trabalhar não é só “cultivar o trigo” (dimensão das necessidades fisiológicas), mas também “cultivar a pureza”, dimensão esta, relacionada com a satisfação das necessidades espirituais. Por que apreciamos uma diferença tão acentuada entre essas culturas? Provavelmente, os diferentes graus de desenvolvimento dos povos levaram a isso. Enquanto entre os gregos primava uma divisão do trabalho, onde alguns tinham o status de “homens livres” dedicados à contemplação e ao ócio, outros não tinham escolha a não ser trabalhar, em uma situação de domínio em relação às naturezas daqueles que o empregaram. Esse não foi o caso dos caldeus, que possuía um escasso dividido trabalho, em que a todos se correspondia uma atividade laboriosa. -/- 3. A VISÃO DOS HEBREUS SOBRE O TRABALHO -/- No meio do caminho entre os caldeus e os gregos, encontramos a avaliação do trabalho feita pelos hebreus, dessa vez, tingindo de ambivalências. Tal como ponderava Hesíodo entre os gregos, para os hebreus, o trabalho se constituía de um mal necessário; em um meio para expiar os pecados; dessa vez não de Prometeu, mas de Adão e Eva. Vamos ver, no entanto, alguns aspectos mais complexos. A primeira coisa a se notar da perspectiva hebraica (compartilhada com o cristianismo) é o que se resulta da leitura do livro de Gênesis, aquela história poética e cheia de imagens para elucidar facilmente a origem da criação. Lá se estabelece a ideia de um deus criador-trabalhador: “No princípio Deus criou o céu e a terra [...] No sétimo dia Deus já havia concluído a obra que realizara, e nesse dia descansou [...] de toda a obra que realizara na criação”.(7) Esse Deus como primeira causa (São Tomás de Aquino (1225-1274)) denota laboriosidade seu correspondente descanso, um binômio que será fundamental para compreender a evolução do direito do trabalho e do direito ao descanso semanal contemporâneo. Digamos, em segundo lugar, que o Senhor Deus providenciou o trabalho no Éden: “O Senhor Deus colocou o homem no jardim do Éden para cuidar dele e cultivá-lo”.(8) Portanto, não é certa a ideia de que o trabalho é o resultado do pecado: ao contrário, é um trabalho árduo aquele que deriva do pecado segundo a tradição hebraico-cristã. Antes, na ausência do pecado, havia uma espécie de bom trabalho. Foi o pecado original, que levou Deus a condenar Adão e Eva, e por isso a toda a humanidade, a “ganhar o pão com o suor da sua testa”. “Por isso o Senhor Deus o mandou embora do jardim do Éden para cultivar o solo do qual fora tirado”. (9) O Talmude diz: “Se o homem não encontra seu alimento como animais e pássaros, precisa ganhá-los, isso se deve ao pecado”. Essa sentença, de caráter histórico, promove a ideia de trabalho como meio para expiar o pecado original, mas também como meio para produzir; isto é, legitimando a mudança inerente a todo trabalho e, portanto, legitimando também aquela vontade transformadora que caracterizou desde sempre os povos hebreus.(10) Agora, ao contrário dos caldeus, para os hebreus da antiguidade, o trabalho nunca teve um fim ético em si mesmo, mas foi constituído apenas como um meio. Essa visão esteve sempre presente, e caracteriza muito claramente a concepção que muitos integrantes de nossas sociedades contemporâneas possuem sobre o trabalho, além da religião de cada um. -/- 4. OS ROMANOS E O TRABALHO -/- Os romanos, por sua vez, deram uma importante contribuição para o desenvolvimento do conceito de trabalho. Se bem que, a grosso modo, não houvesse grandes diferenças com o pensamento dos gregos, com quem eles tinham em comum, além disso, uma maior divisão do trabalho fruto do desenvolvimento econômico e o uso massivo de mão de obra escrava(11); a maior contribuição do ponto de vista de sua originalidade histórica estava presente na tradição jurídica que inauguraria o Império Romano. O maior impacto por meios jurídicos e não filosóficos é explicado pelo fato de que os romanos, ao contrário dos gregos, não conseguiram “inspirar” a produção de grandes pensadores sociais. Com efeito, para os romanos, como o escravo não era considerado uma pessoa, o viam-no desprovido de personalidade jurídica. Isso conduziu a negação da relação de trabalho entre a pessoa encarregada de um trabalho manual (escravo) e seu dono. Tal relação correspondia, acima de tudo, ao direito de propriedade que os juristas romanos haviam garantido quase sem limites para seus cidadãos. O problema, como aponta Hopenhayn, surgiu quando o proprietário não ocupa seu escravo, mas aluga-o para terceiros. Surge assim a figura do arrendamento de serviços, que deriva do arrendamento das coisas. Porém, como na realidade o que se alugava era a força de trabalho, a qualidade jurídica desloca-se para a atividade realizada pelo escravo. Dessa forma, a atividade do trabalhador, primeiro do escravo, posteriormente do homem livre, começa a ser tratada como uma coisa, e se converte em antecedente do arrendamento de serviços do Direito Civil moderno. Ademais, na tradição romana, o trabalho manual estava desprestigiado. Cícero (106-43 a.C.) em De Officiis, estabeleceu com fria claridade “ipsa merces est auctoramentum servitius”(12) (todo trabalho assalariado é trabalho escravo). A vida era difícil para esses trabalhadores: nos territórios sob domínio romano, Augusto (63-14 a.C.) tinha imposto um tributo à todos os homens que exerciam algum tipo de trabalho manual, além do imposto à residência, às valas e outros mais particulares como o imposto para a detenção de porcos. Certamente, aqueles que levaram a pior parte no tempo da Roma Imperial foram os escravos (servi) sob domínio e propriedade de seus donos (domini). Me seus tempos de auge, a demanda de escravos em Roma era de 500.000 ao ano. Se compararmos com os 60.000 escravos negros trazidos a América nos anos de maior tráfico, teremos uma ideia mais ou menos exata da magnitude desse triste fenômeno. -/- 5. O CRISTIANISMO E O TRABALHO -/- As mensagens do cristianismo primitivo, são inseridas logo, nesse tempo histórico, onde Roma se tornava o centro das maiores mobilizações de rebeldia da antiguidade. Isaías, nesse sentido, proclamaria que o Messias viria: “[...] a pregar boas novas aos abatidos, a vendar aos quebrantados de coração, a publicar liberdade aos cativos, e aos presos a abertura do cárcere”.(13) Jesus, efetivamente, incluiu em sua missão, mensagens de libertação aos pobres e oprimidos. Porém, ao contrário do supracitado, como bem sinala Eric Roll (1907-2005), dos antigos profetas hebreus, não o faria saudando as comunidades tribais com seu espírito de grupo; mas animado por uma mensagem mais universal e permanente, proclamando uma mudança mais completa e integral na conduta do homem em sociedade, onde os valores de justiça e amor se colocariam em um primeiro plano. Evidentemente, a mensagem do cristianismo primitivo, e mais concretamente de Cristo, distava muito dos filósofos gregos. Deixemos que Roll explique: Temos visto que as doutrinas econômicas de Platão e, em certa medida, de Aristóteles, nasciam da aversão aristocrática ao desenvolvimento do comercialismo e da democracia. Seus ataques contra os males que acarreta o afã de acumular as riquezas são reacionárias: olham para trás, e o de Cristo olha para frente, pois exige uma mudança total, mas relações humanas. Aqueles sonhavam com um estado ideal destinado a proporcionar a “boa vida” para os cidadãos livres unicamente e cujas fronteiras eram as da cidade-estado daquele tempo; Cristo pretendeu falar por todos e para todos os homens. Platão e Aristóteles haviam justificado a escravidão; os ensinamentos de Cristo sobre a fraternidade entre todos os homens e o amor universal eram incompatíveis com a ideia da escravidão, apesar das opiniões expostas depois por São Tomás de Aquino. Os filósofos gregos, interessados somente pelos cidadãos, sustentaram opiniões muito rígidas sobre a diferente dignidade das classes de trabalho, e consideravam as ocupações servis, com exceção da agricultura, como próprias apenas para os escravos. Cristo, ao dirigir-se aos trabalhadores de seu tempo, proclamou pela primeira vez a dignidade de todas as classes de trabalho, assim materiais como espirituais (1942. p. 42 – Tradução própria). Não pode escapar desse estudo, o fato de que o próprio Jesus Cristo herdou o ofício de carpinteiro de seu “Pai” José; e que escolheu seus discípulos entre os pescadores e artesãos da região. Essa visão primitiva do cristianismo, no entanto, deve ser analisada no quadro das escrituras sagradas do Antigo Testamento que compartilha com a cultura (e obviamente a religião) hebraica. Nesse sentido, o trabalho não deixa de ser um meio, descartando-se como um fim em si mesmo. Mas, agora atribuindo-lhe um novo valor, sempre em tento um meio para um fim virtuoso: o trabalho será fundamental para permitir a satisfação das necessidades de cada um, mas também seus frutos, deverão ser inseridos em uma dimensão comunitária, onde o “próximo” necessitado esperará a contribuição fraterna e solidária do cristão. O trabalho, nessa perspectiva, não só possibilita o “tomar”, mas também o “dar”. Em relação a dupla perspectiva, é onde podemos entender a crítica do cristianismo a acumulação da riqueza. Como aponta o evangelista Mateus, “acumular o tesouro no céu, onde nem a traça nem a ferrugem os consomem, e onde os ladrões não perfuram nem roubam. Onde está o seu tesouro está seu coração”. (14) Com São Paulo se incorpora um novo componente valioso: a obrigatoriedade moral do trabalho. Em sua carta aos Tessalonicenses dita claramente “ao que não trabalha que não coma”. Diz São Paulo: Vocês sabem em que forma têm que nos imitar: nós trabalhamos enquanto estivemos entre vocês, não pedimos a ninguém um pão que não teríamos ganhado, senão que, de noite e dia, trabalhamos duramente até nos cansarmos, para não ser carga para nenhum de vocês [...] Além disso, quando estávamos com vocês lhes demos está regra: se alguém não quiser trabalhar, não coma. Mas agora ouvimos que há entre vocês alguns que vivem sem nenhuma disciplina e não fazem nada, muito ocupados em meter-se em tudo. A estes lhes mandamos e lhes rogamos, por Cristo Jesus, nosso Senhor, que trabalhem tranquilos para ganhar a vida (II Tes. 3:10). Essa frase, entendida somente no contexto de uma sociedade donde não existia um conceito de desemprego tal como entendemos atualmente, é curiosamente reproduzida pelo modelo soviético em pleno século XX. Com efeito, a Constituição da União Soviética estabeleceu em seu Artigo 12: “O trabalho é, na Rússia, uma questão de dever e de honra para todo cidadão fisicamente capaz. Essa obrigação é baseada no princípio: “quem não trabalha não come”. (15)(16) Para São Paulo, o trabalho deve ser o meio para ganhar a vida. Ele quis ser exemplo e enquanto pregava continuava trabalhando, presumivelmente como tecelão de tendas. A obrigatoriedade moral se aplica na medida em que a pessoa está em condições de o fazer. Para os incapacitados a fazê-lo (idosos, crianças, deficientes, doentes, acidentados etc.) existia a obrigatoriedade do socorro segundo a máxima do amor (ágape) ao próximo. Essas sentenças morais têm hoje em dia uma importante quota de explicação para com as contemporâneas políticas sociais. -/- 6. O TRABALHO NA IDADE MÉDIA -/- A Idade Média, período que ocupa desde o crepúsculo do Império Romano do Ocidente no século V pelos bárbaros, até o século XV, com a queda de Constantinopla, evidentemente mostra um conjunto importante de escolas e pensadores que marcaram pautas importantes para discernir o valor do trabalho nas diferentes culturas. A organização econômica mais visível nestes mil anos, onde operou o trabalho, consistia em extensões grandes de latifúndios errados do Império Romano (o sistema econômico denominado feudalismo), onde (mediante a falta de escravos) recorreu-se à mão de obra camponesa para o trabalho. O sistema, implicava o arrendamento de parte dessas terras a ex-escravos ou homens livres, em troca de uma renda em dinheiro e espécies, além do cultivo das próprias terras senhoriais. Por certo, a figura do servo não distava muito da do escravo se tivermos em conta as condições de funcionamento do contrato de trabalho. O comércio também teve seu lugar no sistema feudal, o mesmo adquiriu grande importância em certas regiões ou lugares, à exemplo de Constantinopla. A atividade econômica seguia seu rumo na história, e depois dos séculos IX e X, o crescimento das forças produtivas deu lugar a uma maior acumulação por parte de componentes e artesãos e, por certo, a uma maior apropriação de excedentes por parte do Senhor feudal. Essa situação foi ativante para a construção dos primeiros Burgos ou cidades, onde o comércio e a indústria artesanal teriam um marco mais adequado para o seu desenvolvimento. Essa é a etapa do nascimento dos primeiros grêmios corporativos (17). Então para o século XII, a estrutura feudal começa a desmoronar porque a produção de determinados bens começa a ser mais eficiente em cidades e não no feudo. O dinheiro, então, passou a ganhar maior peso que a terra, o que obriga os senhores feudais a aumentar seus rendimentos. Isso leva a um empobrecimento lógico dos camponeses, o que não dura muito, porque na primeira metade do século XIV, a maior parte dos servos alcança sua liberdade. Por sua vez, nessa apertada síntese da história econômica da Idade Média, devemos assinalar que pelo século XIV, e depois das Cruzadas e o posterior desenvolvimento do comércio internacional entre os impérios arábico e bizantino, inaugura-se uma etapa pré-capitalista que durará três séculos. É lá que se levanta mais energética a voz de alguns homens da Igreja contra a tendência à exaltação da riqueza já começava a avivar-se na Europa. São Tomás de Aquino, nesse sentido, não considerará ao comércio pré-capitalista bom ou natural. No entanto, ele o julgava inevitável uma vez que era o meio ao qual o comerciante tinha que manter a sua família. Dessa forma, os lucros do comércio não era outra coisa senão o fruto do trabalho. Se tratava, então, de colocar o acento na justiça da mudança efetuada, para o qual Aquino recorre a Aristóteles, cuja análise sobre o valor de mudança é figurado no seu estudo da Justiça. Muitos padres da Igreja, desde então, pretenderam formular um conceito de “preço justo”. Nesse sentido, o Cristianismo apresenta uma evolução do seu pensamento sobre o comércio que partia de uma visão absolutamente contrária ao começo da Idade Média (Santo Agostinho (354-430), São Jerônimo (347-420) etc.), a outra mais transacionável, que acompanhou, sobretudo, o pensamento de Aquino. Algo similar ocorreu com outro dos “preceitos” da Igreja em matéria econômica: a usura. Esta era considerada pela igreja como a melhor forma de obter lucro. O mesmo evangelista Lucas (século I d.C.) foi categórico ao rejeitar essa linha de operações. A lei hebraica também fez isso, e podemos encontrar no livro do Êxodo (22,25) tal proibição a respeito. Mais atrás no tempo, há antecedentes de condenação à usura entre os hindus (Rigveda, cerca de 1500 a.C.) e budistas (século VI d.C.), além do Islã mais próximo do nosso tempo (século VI d.C.). Ao princípio da Idade Média, como testemunha Roll, a proibição somente alcançava a Igreja, já que o escasso desenvolvimento mercantil não merecia outra coisa. No final da Idade Média, no entanto, que a situação é outra; e a prática secular foi orientada no sentido de promover o empréstimo de dinheiro cobrando por isso um juro. Alarmada ante esses fatos, a Igreja condena mais uma vez a usura no Terceiro Concílio de Latrão de 1179. No mesmo escreveu e ensinou São Tomé (século I d.C.) e outros discípulos da Igreja. No entanto, as práticas econômicas foram minando a autoridade eclesial e está terminou, através de sucessivas etapas, por aceitar, em certas condições e sob certas circunstâncias, a cobrança de juros sobre a concessão de um empréstimo. Em tal sentido, um dos autores mais representativos só início da Idade Média foi Santo Agostinho. Foi este um dos pilares, em seu tempo, das noções “anticapitalistas” que foram seguidas e complementadas por homens do tamanho de São João (347-407), São Ambrósio (340-397), São Clemente (150-215), São Cipriano (200-258) entre outros. (18) Santo Agostinho valoriza o trabalho recordando em tal sentido a São Paulo, a que cita com muita frequência em seus textos. Segundo o Bispo de Hipona, todo trabalho manual é bom pelas razões dadas pelo cristianismo primitivo. Concilia, além disso, seu dualismo platônico, ao sustentar que enquanto o homem trabalha tem a alma livre, de modo que é perfeitamente compatível pensar em Deus ao mesmo tempo em que se trabalha. Essa particular sintonia entre o trabalho e a oração foi perfeitamente posta a prova pelos monges beneditinos, cujo lema “Ora Et Labora” (orar e trabalhar) é paradigmático. “Trabalha e não desesperes” dizia seu fundador, São Bento de Núrsia (480-547), de seus monastérios distribuídos em um primeiro momento a Subiaco, no início do século VI. Também corresponde a São Bento uma sentença que perdura até o dia de hoje no imaginário moral sobre o trabalho: “Otiositas inimica est animae” (a ociosidade é inimiga da alma), tal qual diz uma expressão popular castelhana: “el ocio es la madre de todos los vicios” (o ócio é a mãe de todos os vícios). Tomás de Aquino, alguns séculos depois, continua a reflexão sobre o trabalho e estabelece uma hierarquia de profissões, onde localiza o trabalho agrícola e artesanal acima do comercial. Uma quota de originalidade na história do pensamento sobre o trabalho consistiu em considerá-lo como uma obrigação somente se necessário para subsistir; ou dito de outra maneira: quem não tem necessidade de trabalhar não tem que fazê-lo. Isso sim, à falta de trabalho, devia dedicar-se à oração e contemplação divina, atividades por certo mais elevadas para o autor da Suma Teológica. Logo, considerará que Deus é a causa primária, a que tudo deve a sua existência; por derivação, o homem é causa segunda, procurando atreves do trabalho “criar” em suas dimensões humanas. “Entre todas as formas com que a criatura humana tenta realizar a semelhança divina, não há outra de relevo mais destacado que a de trabalhar, isto é, ser em o mundo causa novos efeitos”, disse o Santo. (19) Aquino, além disso, utilizando categorias platônicas, hierarquiza o trabalho, considerando o intelectual acima do manual. Chama “artes servis” a estes últimos, enquanto que o trabalho intelectual corresponde ao conjunto das “artes liberais”, dignas de maior remuneração ao fazer uso da inteligência. Esta distinção própria da Escolástica, dá lugar à divisão clássica entre as 7 artes liberais: o Trívium (gramática, retórica e dialética) e quadrivium (astronomia, geometria, aritmética e música). Outras contribuições de São Aquino têm a ver com sua posição diante do trabalho agrícola ao qual o considera como o melhor meio para assegurar a subsistência de um povo; a maior importância dada à vida contemplativa sobre a ativa, embora considerando a primeira como “laboriosa”; sua posição sobre a escravidão, que não considerava como natural, no entanto, entendê-la “útil”(20); e sua interpretação sobre o contrato de trabalho: neste, o operário não vende a si mesmo, nem seu corpo, nem sua inteligência, nem sequer sua faculdade de trabalho. Isso significa que o Direito Natural proíbe considerar o trabalho como um objeto de mudança. Propõe, em vez disso, considerar o contrato como um arrendamento de serviço. Em termos gerais, a valorização que sobre o trabalho se realiza na Idade Média, rebaixando ao trabalho manual em relação a outras tarefas, fica explícita na divisão tripartida que recorre, entre outros, Adalberão Bispo de Laon (947-1030): “Triplex Dei ergo domus est quae Creditor uma nunca oran, alii pugnat, Aliique laborant” (ternária é a casa do Senhor e não uma: aqui sobre a terra uns oram, outros lutam e outros trabalham). Não gostaria de deixar passar por alto, finalmente, entre os movimentos originados na Idade Média, a contribuição que sobre o tema do trabalho teve a ordem franciscana. Essa, contra o que muitos podem crer, é uma ordem não mendicante no sentido estrito, mas sim trabalhadora e de pobreza. São Francisco de Assis (1181/82-1226), no final do século XII, marcaria como ninguém dentro do cristianismo, uma vida ascética baseada no trabalho e na pobreza. Inclui, além disso, um elemento pela primeira vez descoberto na cultura europeia: o sentido da alegria que acompanha o trabalho. “Essa condição de 'suor de sua testa' com 'a alegria de seu coração' outorga ao trabalho uma condição diferenciada”. Avançando então na história da humanidade, entramos na época moderna, caracterizada por cinco grandes eventos: -/- 1. A decadência do poder moral da Igreja e o enfraquecimento de seu poder econômico frente ao da crescente burguesia; -/- 2. O renascimento intelectual e artístico; -/- 3. As viagens paras as índias e a descoberta da América; -/- 4. A formação e a constituição dos Estados-nação; -/- 5. As reformas religiosas de Lutero (1483-1546) e Calvino (1509-1564). -/- Nesse contexto, os séculos XV e XVI mostraram como o mercantilismo ia avançando apesar dos esforços de alguns pensadores da Igreja que eventualmente perderam o pulso diante do desenrolar dos acontecimentos. Sucessivas encíclicas papais terminaram por legitimar o interesse nos empréstimos e, por meio desta, levou-se a maior acumulação de riquezas por parte dos banqueiros. Esse foi o meio ideal para o desenvolvimento da atividade do mercador, para quem, o trabalho passou a ser considerado um meio para obter sucesso. Ao dinamizar-se a atividade econômica e mercantil, a visão humanista do trabalho começa a perder valor, realçando-se ao mesmo como um simples meio para fins de enriquecimento. Talvez a exceção a essa noção estendida entre os novos atores tenha sido a proporcionada pelo humanismo renascentista. Para Campanella (1568-1639), por exemplo, sua “Cidade solar”, não existe o divórcio entre trabalho manual e intelectual, isso quando o segundo começa a ser supervalorizado por sua ação no plano das invenções e das novas técnicas.(22) Na mesma linha se situa Thomas More (1478-1535), o autor de “Utopia”, outra reação do cristianismo às projeções que estava adquirindo o cada vez mais influente mercantilismo. Embora o trabalho não seja considerado como um mau, pelo contrário, apresenta características humanizadoras, é sugestivo comprovar como em Utopia a jornada do trabalho não supera as seis horas diárias e na Cidade solar não se devia trabalhar mais que quatro horas. Indubitavelmente, essas versões de sociedades ideais terminariam por impactar sobre maneira a constituição das Missões Jesuítas na América do Sul; e as Franciscanas na Baixa Califórnia. É o Renascimento, o lugar propício, além disso, para renovar o conceito da virtuosidade, agora traduzida na figura do empresário ou financista audacioso e empreendedor. Essa linha foi reforçada logo por Calvino, para quem os negócios são um bom serviço a Deus, e a riqueza não é mais que um fruto de uma vida dedicada ao trabalho desde uma perspectiva ética que analisarei com Weber mais tarde, mas que confere ao trabalho a particularidade de ser um caminho para o sucesso. Esse puritanismo impulsionou sobremaneira a versão do “homo economicus” que mais tarde, em pleno auge do capitalismo pós-industrial, ao qual, segundo Daniel Bell (1919-2011), fora substituído pelos valores hedonistas. -/- REFERENCIAL TEÓRICO AGOSTINHO. Cidade de Deus: contra os pagãos. Trad. O. P. Leme. 2ª ed. Bragança Paulista: Editora Universitária, 2008. (Col. Pensamento humano). _____________. O livre-arbítrio. Trad. N. A. Oliveira. 1ª ed. São Paulo: Paulus, 1995. AQUINO, T. de. Suma Teológica. 2ª ed. São Paulo: Loyola, 2001. ARENDT, H. A condição humana. Trad. Roberto Raposo. Posfácio de Celso Lafer. 10ª ed. Rio de Janeiro: Forense Universitária, 2007. ARISTÓTELES. Política. Trad. A. C. Amaral e Carlos Gomes. 1ª ed. Lisboa: Vega, 1998. ARVON, H. A filosofia do trabalho. Trad. João Carlos Cunha. 1ª ed. Lisboa: Socicultur, 1961. AUGUSTI, J. C. W. Corpus Librorum symbolicorum. 1ª ed. Elberfeldi, 1827. BAVA, A. C. Introdução a sociologia do trabalho. 1ª ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1990. BÍBLIA SAGRADA. Trad. J. F. Almeida. Rio de Janeiro: King Cross, 2008. BOMENY, H. et al. Tempos modernos, tempos de sociologia. 2ª ed. São Paulo: Editora do Brasil, 2013. CAMUS, A. O mito de Sísifo. In: FALABRETTI, E.; OLIVEIRA, J. Filosofia: o livro das perguntas. 1ª ed. Curitiba: IESDE, 2011. ELDERS, L. J. O Pensamento de Santo Tomás de Aquino sobre o Trabalho. Trad. D. N. Pêcego. Aquinat, n° 9, (2009), 2-12. ISBN 1808-5733. FOSSIER, R. O trabalho na Idade Média. Trad. Marcelo Barreiro. 1ª ed. Petrópolis: Vozes, 2019. FRIEDMANN, G.; NAVILLE, P. Tratado de Sociologia do Trabalho. 1ª ed. São Paulo: Cultrix, 1973. HERZOG, J. S. Historia del pensamiento económico-social: de la antigüedad al siglo XVI. 4ª ed. México: FCE, 1939. HOPENHAYN, M. El Trabajo, itinerario de um concepto. 1ª ed. Santiago: PET, 1988. _________________. Repensar el trabajo – Historia, profusión y perspectivas de un concepto. 1ª ed. Buenos Aires: Norma, 2001. LUDWIG, E. Stalin. 1ª ed. Rio de Janeiro: Calvino, 1943. MACHADO, I. J. de R.; AMORIM, H. J. D.; BARROS, C. R. de. Sociologia hoje. 1ª ed. São Paulo: Ática, 2013. MERCURE, D.; SPURK, J. (Orgs.). O Trabalho na história do pensamento Ocidental. Petrópolis: Vozes, 2005. NOGUERA, J. A. El concepto de trabajo y la teoría social crítica. Barcelona: Papers, 2002. O'CONNOR, D. J. Historia crítica de la filosofía occidental. Tomo I – La filosofía en la antigüidad. 1ª ed. Buenos Aires: Paidós, 1967. OLIVEIRA, P. S. de. Introdução a sociologia. 24ª ed. São Paulo: Ática, 2001. PLATÃO. A República. 2ª ed. São Paulo: Martin Claret, 2000. (Col. A obra-prima de cada autor). _______. Político. Trad. J. C. de Souza, J. Paleikat e J. C. Costa. 2ª ed. São Paulo: Abril Cultural, 1983. (Col. Os Pensadores). ROLL, E. Historia de las doctrinas económicas. 1ª ed. México: FCE, 1942. SIMÓN, Y. R. Work, society and culture. 1ª ed. Nova Iorque: Fordham University Press, 1971. SILVA, A. et al. Sociologia em movimento. 2ª ed. São Paulo: Moderna, 2016. THE ZONDERVAN CORPORATION (Ed.). A História – a bíblia contada como uma só história do começo ao fim. Trad. Fabiano Morais. 1ª ed. Rio de Janeiro: Sextante, 2012. (shrink)

This eighth volume of Collected Papers includes 75 papers comprising 973 pages on (theoretic and applied) neutrosophics, written between 2010-2022 by the author alone or in collaboration with the following 102 co-authors (alphabetically ordered) from 24 countries: Mohamed Abdel-Basset, Abduallah Gamal, Firoz Ahmad, Ahmad Yusuf Adhami, Ahmed B. Al-Nafee, Ali Hassan, Mumtaz Ali, Akbar Rezaei, Assia Bakali, Ayoub Bahnasse, Azeddine Elhassouny, Durga Banerjee, Romualdas Bausys, Mircea Boșcoianu, Traian Alexandru Buda, Bui Cong Cuong, Emilia Calefariu, Ahmet Çevik, Chang Su Kim, Victor (...) Christianto, Dae Wan Kim, Daud Ahmad, Arindam Dey, Partha Pratim Dey, Mamouni Dhar, H. A. Elagamy, Ahmed K. Essa, Sudipta Gayen, Bibhas C. Giri, Daniela Gîfu, Noel Batista Hernández, Hojjatollah Farahani, Huda E. Khalid, Irfan Deli, Saeid Jafari, Tèmítópé Gbóláhàn Jaíyéolá, Sripati Jha, Sudan Jha, Ilanthenral Kandasamy, W.B. Vasantha Kandasamy, Darjan Karabašević, M. Karthika, Kawther F. Alhasan, Giruta Kazakeviciute-Januskeviciene, Qaisar Khan, Kishore Kumar P K, Prem Kumar Singh, Ranjan Kumar, Maikel Leyva-Vázquez, Mahmoud Ismail, Tahir Mahmood, Hafsa Masood Malik, Mohammad Abobala, Mai Mohamed, Gunasekaran Manogaran, Seema Mehra, Kalyan Mondal, Mohamed Talea, Mullai Murugappan, Muhammad Akram, Muhammad Aslam Malik, Muhammad Khalid Mahmood, Nivetha Martin, Durga Nagarajan, Nguyen Van Dinh, Nguyen Xuan Thao, Lewis Nkenyereya, Jagan M. Obbineni, M. Parimala, S. K. Patro, Peide Liu, Pham Hong Phong, Surapati Pramanik, Gyanendra Prasad Joshi, Quek Shio Gai, R. Radha, A.A. Salama, S. Satham Hussain, Mehmet Șahin, Said Broumi, Ganeshsree Selvachandran, Selvaraj Ganesan, Shahbaz Ali, Shouzhen Zeng, Manjeet Singh, A. Stanis Arul Mary, Dragiša Stanujkić, Yusuf Șubaș, Rui-Pu Tan, Mirela Teodorescu, Selçuk Topal, Zenonas Turskis, Vakkas Uluçay, Norberto Valcárcel Izquierdo, V. Venkateswara Rao, Volkan Duran, Ying Li, Young Bae Jun, Wadei F. Al-Omeri, Jian-qiang Wang, Lihshing Leigh Wang, Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas. (shrink)

This ninth volume of Collected Papers includes 87 papers comprising 982 pages on Neutrosophic Theory and its applications in Algebra, written between 2014-2022 by the author alone or in collaboration with the following 81 co-authors (alphabetically ordered) from 19 countries: E.O. Adeleke, A.A.A. Agboola, Ahmed B. Al-Nafee, Ahmed Mostafa Khalil, Akbar Rezaei, S.A. Akinleye, Ali Hassan, Mumtaz Ali, Rajab Ali Borzooei , Assia Bakali, Cenap Özel, Victor Christianto, Chunxin Bo, Rakhal Das, Bijan Davvaz, R. Dhavaseelan, B. Elavarasan, Fahad Alsharari, T. (...) Gharibah, Hina Gulzar, Hashem Bordbar, Le Hoang Son, Emmanuel Ilojide, Tèmítópé Gbóláhàn Jaíyéolá, M. Karthika, Ilanthenral Kandasamy, W.B. Vasantha Kandasamy, Huma Khan, Madad Khan, Mohsin Khan, Hee Sik Kim, Seon Jeong Kim, Valeri Kromov, R. M. Latif, Madeleine Al-Tahan, Mehmat Ali Ozturk, Minghao Hu, S. Mirvakili, Mohammad Abobala, Mohammad Hamidi, Mohammed Abdel-Sattar, Mohammed A. Al Shumrani, Mohamed Talea, Muhammad Akram, Muhammad Aslam, Muhammad Aslam Malik, Muhammad Gulistan, Muhammad Shabir, G. Muhiuddin, Memudu Olaposi Olatinwo, Osman Anis, Choonkil Park, M. Parimala, Ping Li, K. Porselvi, D. Preethi, S. Rajareega, N. Rajesh, Udhayakumar Ramalingam, Riad K. Al-Hamido, Yaser Saber, Arsham Borumand Saeid, Saeid Jafari, Said Broumi, A.A. Salama, Ganeshsree Selvachandran, Songtao Shao, Seok-Zun Song, Tahsin Oner, M. Mohseni Takallo, Binod Chandra Tripathy, Tugce Katican, J. Vimala, Xiaohong Zhang, Xiaoyan Mao, Xiaoying Wu, Xingliang Liang, Xin Zhou, Yingcang Ma, Young Bae Jun, Juanjuan Zhang. (shrink)

This thirteenth volume of Collected Papers is an eclectic tome of 88 papers in various fields of sciences, such as astronomy, biology, calculus, economics, education and administration, game theory, geometry, graph theory, information fusion, decision making, instantaneous physics, quantum physics, neutrosophic logic and set, non-Euclidean geometry, number theory, paradoxes, philosophy of science, scientific research methods, statistics, and others, structured in 17 chapters (Neutrosophic Theory and Applications; Neutrosophic Algebra; Fuzzy Soft Sets; Neutrosophic Sets; Hypersoft Sets; Neutrosophic Semigroups; Neutrosophic Graphs; Superhypergraphs; Plithogeny; (...) Information Fusion; Statistics; Decision Making; Extenics; Instantaneous Physics; Paradoxism; Mathematica; Miscellanea), comprising 965 pages, published between 2005-2022 in different scientific journals, by the author alone or in collaboration with the following 110 co-authors (alphabetically ordered) from 26 countries: Abduallah Gamal, Sania Afzal, Firoz Ahmad, Muhammad Akram, Sheriful Alam, Ali Hamza, Ali H. M. Al-Obaidi, Madeleine Al-Tahan, Assia Bakali, Atiqe Ur Rahman, Sukanto Bhattacharya, Bilal Hadjadji, Robert N. Boyd, Willem K.M. Brauers, Umit Cali, Youcef Chibani, Victor Christianto, Chunxin Bo, Shyamal Dalapati, Mario Dalcín, Arup Kumar Das, Elham Davneshvar, Bijan Davvaz, Irfan Deli, Muhammet Deveci, Mamouni Dhar, R. Dhavaseelan, Balasubramanian Elavarasan, Sara Farooq, Haipeng Wang, Ugur Halden, Le Hoang Son, Hongnian Yu, Qays Hatem Imran, Mayas Ismail, Saeid Jafari, Jun Ye, Ilanthenral Kandasamy, W.B. Vasantha Kandasamy, Darjan Karabašević, Abdullah Kargın, Vasilios N. Katsikis, Nour Eldeen M. Khalifa, Madad Khan, M. Khoshnevisan, Tapan Kumar Roy, Pinaki Majumdar, Sreepurna Malakar, Masoud Ghods, Minghao Hu, Mingming Chen, Mohamed Abdel-Basset, Mohamed Talea, Mohammad Hamidi, Mohamed Loey, Mihnea Alexandru Moisescu, Muhammad Ihsan, Muhammad Saeed, Muhammad Shabir, Mumtaz Ali, Muzzamal Sitara, Nassim Abbas, Munazza Naz, Giorgio Nordo, Mani Parimala, Ion Pătrașcu, Gabrijela Popović, K. Porselvi, Surapati Pramanik, D. Preethi, Qiang Guo, Riad K. Al-Hamido, Zahra Rostami, Said Broumi, Saima Anis, Muzafer Saračević, Ganeshsree Selvachandran, Selvaraj Ganesan, Shammya Shananda Saha, Marayanagaraj Shanmugapriya, Songtao Shao, Sori Tjandrah Simbolon, Florentin Smarandache, Predrag S. Stanimirović, Dragiša Stanujkić, Raman Sundareswaran, Mehmet Șahin, Ovidiu-Ilie Șandru, Abdulkadir Șengür, Mohamed Talea, Ferhat Taș, Selçuk Topal, Alptekin Ulutaș, Ramalingam Udhayakumar, Yunita Umniyati, J. Vimala, Luige Vlădăreanu, Ştefan Vlăduţescu, Yaman Akbulut, Yanhui Guo, Yong Deng, You He, Young Bae Jun, Wangtao Yuan, Rong Xia, Xiaohong Zhang, Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas, Zayen Azzouz Omar, Xiaohong Zhang, Zhirou Ma.‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬. (shrink)

This seventh volume of Collected Papers includes 70 papers comprising 974 pages on (theoretic and applied) neutrosophics, written between 2013-2021 by the author alone or in collaboration with the following 122 co-authors from 22 countries: Mohamed Abdel-Basset, Abdel-Nasser Hussian, C. Alexander, Mumtaz Ali, Yaman Akbulut, Amir Abdullah, Amira S. Ashour, Assia Bakali, Kousik Bhattacharya, Kainat Bibi, R. N. Boyd, Ümit Budak, Lulu Cai, Cenap Özel, Chang Su Kim, Victor Christianto, Chunlai Du, Chunxin Bo, Rituparna Chutia, Cu Nguyen Giap, Dao The (...) Son, Vinayak Devvrat, Arindam Dey, Partha Pratim Dey, Fahad Alsharari, Feng Yongfei, S. Ganesan, Shivam Ghildiyal, Bibhas C. Giri, Masooma Raza Hashmi, Ahmed Refaat Hawas, Hoang Viet Long, Le Hoang Son, Hongbo Wang, Hongnian Yu, Mihaiela Iliescu, Saeid Jafari, Temitope Gbolahan Jaiyeola, Naeem Jan, R. Jeevitha, Jun Ye, Anup Khan, Madad Khan, Salma Khan, Ilanthenral Kandasamy, W.B. Vasantha Kandasamy, Darjan Karabašević, Kifayat Ullah, Kishore Kumar P.K., Sujit Kumar De, Prasun Kumar Nayak, Malayalan Lathamaheswari, Luong Thi Hong Lan, Anam Luqman, Luu Quoc Dat, Tahir Mahmood, Hafsa M. Malik, Nivetha Martin, Mai Mohamed, Parimala Mani, Mingcong Deng, Mohammed A. Al Shumrani, Mohammad Hamidi, Mohamed Talea, Kalyan Mondal, Muhammad Akram, Muhammad Gulistan, Farshid Mofidnakhaei, Muhammad Shoaib, Muhammad Riaz, Karthika Muthusamy, Nabeela Ishfaq, Deivanayagampillai Nagarajan, Sumera Naz, Nguyen Dinh Hoa, Nguyen Tho Thong, Nguyen Xuan Thao, Noor ul Amin, Dragan Pamučar, Gabrijela Popović, S. Krishna Prabha, Surapati Pramanik, Priya R, Qiaoyan Li, Yaser Saber, Said Broumi, Saima Anis, Saleem Abdullah, Ganeshsree Selvachandran, Abdulkadir Sengür, Seyed Ahmad Edalatpanah, Shahbaz Ali, Shahzaib Ashraf, Shouzhen Zeng, Shio Gai Quek, Shuangwu Zhu, Shumaiza, Sidra Sayed, Sohail Iqbal, Songtao Shao, Sundas Shahzadi, Dragiša Stanujkić, Željko Stević, Udhayakumar Ramalingam, Zunaira Rashid, Hossein Rashmanlou, Rajkumar Verma, Luige Vlădăreanu, Victor Vlădăreanu, Desmond Jun Yi Tey, Selçuk Topal, Naveed Yaqoob, Yanhui Guo, Yee Fei Gan, Yingcang Ma, Young Bae Jun, Yuping Lai, Hafiz Abdul Wahab, Wei Yang, Xiaohong Zhang, Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas, Lemnaouar Zedam. (shrink)

This twelfth volume of Collected Papers includes 86 papers comprising 976 pages on Neutrosophics Theory and Applications, published between 2013-2021 in the international journal and book series “Neutrosophic Sets and Systems” by the author alone or in collaboration with the following 112 co-authors (alphabetically ordered) from 21 countries: Abdel Nasser H. Zaied, Muhammad Akram, Bobin Albert, S. A. Alblowi, S. Anitha, Guennoun Asmae, Assia Bakali, Ayman M. Manie, Abdul Sami Awan, Azeddine Elhassouny, Erick González-Caballero, D. Dafik, Mithun Datta, Arindam Dey, (...) Mamouni Dhar, Christopher Dyer, Nur Ain Ebas, Mohamed Eisa, Ahmed K. Essa, Faruk Karaaslan, João Alcione Sganderla Figueiredo, Jorge Fernando Goyes García, N. Ramila Gandhi, Sudipta Gayen, Gustavo Alvarez Gómez, Sharon Dinarza Álvarez Gómez, Haitham A. El-Ghareeb, Hamiden Abd El-Wahed Khalifa, Masooma Raza Hashmi, Ibrahim M. Hezam, German Acurio Hidalgo, Le Hoang Son, R. Jahir Hussain, S. Satham Hussain, Ali Hussein Mahmood Al-Obaidi, Hays Hatem Imran, Nabeela Ishfaq, Saeid Jafari, R. Jansi, V. Jeyanthi, M. Jeyaraman, Sripati Jha, Jun Ye, W.B. Vasantha Kandasamy, Abdullah Kargın, J. Kavikumar, Kawther Fawzi Hamza Alhasan, Huda E. Khalid, Neha Andalleb Khalid, Mohsin Khalid, Madad Khan, D. Koley, Valeri Kroumov, Manoranjan Kumar Singh, Pavan Kumar, Prem Kumar Singh, Ranjan Kumar, Malayalan Lathamaheswari, A.N. Mangayarkkarasi, Carlos Rosero Martínez, Marvelio Alfaro Matos, Mai Mohamed, Nivetha Martin, Mohamed Abdel-Basset, Mohamed Talea, K. Mohana, Muhammad Irfan Ahamad, Rana Muhammad Zulqarnain, Muhammad Riaz, Muhammad Saeed, Muhammad Saqlain, Muhammad Shabir, Muhammad Zeeshan, Anjan Mukherjee, Mumtaz Ali, Deivanayagampillai Nagarajan, Iqra Nawaz, Munazza Naz, Roan Thi Ngan, Necati Olgun, Rodolfo González Ortega, P. Pandiammal, I. Pradeepa, R. Princy, Marcos David Oviedo Rodríguez, Jesús Estupiñán Ricardo, A. Rohini, Sabu Sebastian, Abhijit Saha, Mehmet Șahin, Said Broumi, Saima Anis, A.A. Salama, Ganeshsree Selvachandran, Seyed Ahmad Edalatpanah, Sajana Shaik, Soufiane Idbrahim, S. Sowndrarajan, Mohamed Talea, Ruipu Tan, Chalapathi Tekuri, Selçuk Topal, S. P. Tiwari, Vakkas Uluçay, Maikel Leyva Vázquez, Chinnadurai Veerappan, M. Venkatachalam, Luige Vlădăreanu, Ştefan Vlăduţescu, Young Bae Jun, Wadei F. Al-Omeri, Xiao Long Xin.‬‬‬‬‬‬. (shrink)

Sheep production is the most representative livestock activities in Brazil and in the world. However, the reproductive performance of these animals is determined by factors genetic, physical environment, management and, especially, nutritional. Thirty half-breed lambs from Dorper × Santa Inês were used, with initial weight and age of 31.87 ± 0.5 kg and 157 days, respectively. These animals were prepared on a diet with three food levels (ad libitum, 30% and 70%). Morphometric measurements were measured at intervals of 16 to (...) 20 days in 56 experimental days. The measurements performed were scrotal circumference (CE), chest circumference (CT), body condition score (ECC), withers height (AC) and scrotal bag thickness (EBE), body weight (CP) and semen collection. Interaction occurrence for biometric measurements between food levels and age (p <0.05). The TC and ECC values were higher in animals fed ad libitum (p <0.001). EBE had higher values in animals ad libitum and at 211 days of age (p <0.001). The CP was increasing for the animals ad libitum and (p <0.05) throughout the experiment, while the T30 was only in the initial period. T70 animals did not grow during the whole experiment. CE was influenced by diet (p <0.001) and age (p <0.001) independently. So that animals under food restriction had less development and was higher in older animals. The AC values were influenced only by age (p <0.001), demonstrating the effect of age growth. We conclude that it is not advantageous to submit lambs, it corrects food reproduction. Although it was not possible to assess whether initial malnutrition would bring future problems for the animal's seminal quality, it proved to be immensely negative for the onset of puberty and the development of reproductive structures. -/- REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS AKUMBUGU, F. E., et al. Correlation between Body and Testicular Biometric Characteristics of West African Dwarf Rams. Multidisciplinary Advances in Veterinary Science. 2.4, 2018 ALLAOUI, A. et al. Factors affecting scrotal measurements and weight of Ouled Djellal rams in Eastern and South-eastern Algeria. APCBEE procedia, v. 8, p. 260-265, 2014. ALVES, J. M. et al. Estação de nascimento e puberdade em cordeiros Santa Inês. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, v. 35, n. 3, p. 958-966, 2006. ALVES, K. S. et al. Níveis de energia em dietas para ovinos Santa Inês: características de carcaça e constituintes corporais. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, v. 32, n. 6, p. 1927-1936, 2003. BIELLI, A. et al. Low maternal nutrition during pregnancy reduces the number of Sertoli cells in the newborn lamb. Reproduction, Fertility and Development, v. 14, n. 6, p. 333-337, 2002. BROWN, D. C.; STIRLING, H. F.; KELNAR, C. J. H. Precocious puberty. Paediatrics and Child Health, v. 4, n. 3, p. 184-188, 1994. BUDAI, C. Performance and adaptability of the Dorper sheep breed under Hungarian and Romanian rearing conditions. Scientific Papers Animal Science and Biotechnologies, v. 46, n. 1, p. 344-349, 2013. CARNEIRO, P. L. S. et al. Desenvolvimento ponderal e diversidade fenotípica entre cruzamentos de ovinos Dorper com raças locais. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, v. 42, n. 7, p. 991-998, 2007. CARRIJO JUNIOR, O. A. et al. Morphological evaluation of the testicles of young santa Inês rams submitted to different regimes of protein supplementation and drenching. Ciência animal brasileira, Goiânia, v. 9, n. 2, p. 433-441, abr./jun. 2008. CASTRO, F.A.B. de et al. Desempenho de cordeiros Santa Inês do nascimento ao desmame filhos de ovelhas alimentadas com diferentes níveis de energia. Semina: Ciências Agrárias, v. 33, n. 6 supl 2, p. 3379-3388, 2012 CEZAR, M. F. et al. Avaliação de parâmetros fisiológicos de ovinos Dorper, Santa Inês e seus mestiços perante condições climáticas do trópico semi-árido nordestino. Ciência e Agrotecnologia, v. 28, n. 3, p. 614-620, 2004. CHACÓN, L. et al. Características de la pubertad en corderos de pelo y sus cruces en Colombia en condiciones de baja altitud. Revista MVZ Cordoba, v. 24, n. 1, p. 7099-7103, 2019. CHEMINEAU, P. et al. Training manual on artificial insemination in sheep and goats. Rome: FAO; 1991. DA SILVA, Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro. Comportamento Sexual dos Animais Domésticos. 2020. DA SILVA, Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro. Fisiologia do ciclo estral dos animais domésticos. Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva, 2021. Da Silva EIC. Formulação de ração para ovinos. 1ª ed. Belo Jardim, PE: IPA, 2021. DA SILVA, Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro. Puberdade e Estacionalidade Reprodutiva dos Animais. 2020. FAO. Animal Production and Health Paper, v. 83. ELMAZ, Ö. et al. Prediction of postpubertal reproductive potential according to prepubertal body weight, testicular size, and testosterone concentration using multiple regression analysis in Kıvırcık ram lambs. Turkish journal of veterinary and animal sciences, v. 32, n. 5, p. 335-343, 2008. JUCÁ, A. F. et al. Performance of the Santa Ines breed raised on pasture in semiarid tropical regions and factors that explain trait variation. Tropical animal health and production, v. 46, n. 7, p. 1249-1256, 2014. FOURIE, P. J. et al. Scrotal, testicular and semen characteristics of young Dorper rams managed under intensive and extensive conditions. Small Ruminant Research, v. 54, n. 1-2, p. 53-59, 2004. GUNN, R. G.; SIM, D. A.; HUNTER, E. A. Effects of nutrition in utero and in early life on the subsequent lifetime reproductive performance of Scottish Blackface ewes in two management systems. Animal Science, v. 60, n. 2, p. 223-230, 1995. HÖTZEL, M. J. et al. Morphometric and endocrine analyses of the effects of nutrition on the testis of mature Merino rams. Reproduction, v. 113, n. 2, p. 217-230, 1998. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE). Produção Pecuária municipal. Rio de Janeiro, v. 46, p.1-8, 2018. KENYON, P. R.; MALONEY, S. K.; BLACHE, D. Review of sheep body condition score in relation to production characteristics. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, v. 57, n. 1, p. 38-64, 2014. KHERADMAND, A.; BABAEI, H.; ALI BATAVANI, R. Effect of improved diet on semen quality and scrotal circumference in the ram. Veterinarski arhiv, v. 76, n. 4, p. 333-341, 2006. KORKMAZ, M. K.; EMSEN, E. Growth and reproductive traits of purebred and crossbred Romanov lambs in Eastern Anatolia. Anim. Reprod., v. 13, n. 1, p. 3-6, 2016. KRIDLI, R. T. et al. Age at puberty and some biological parameters of Awassi and its first crosses with Charollais and Romanov rams. Italian journal of animal science, v. 5, n. 2, p. 193-202, 2006. LOUW, D. F. J.; JOUBERT, D. M. Puberty in the male Dorper sheep and Boer goat. S. Afr. J. Agric. Sci, v. 7, p. 509-520, 1964. MAIA, A. S. C.; SILVA, R. G.; ANDRADE, P. C. Efeitos da temperatura e da movimentação do ar sobre o isolamento térmico do velo de ovinos em câmara climática. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, v. 38, n. 1, p. 104-108, 2009. MARTINS, R. D. et al. Avaliação da sazonalidade reprodutiva de carneiros Santa Inês criados no Distrito Federal. R. Bras. Zootec., Viçosa, v. 32, n. 6, supl. 1, p. 1594-1603, Dec. 2003. MENDES, A. M. P. et al. Zoneamento bioclimático para a raça ovina Dorper no Estado de Pernambuco. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, v. 49, n. 12, p. 986-993, 2014. MOULLA, F. et al. Characterization of the onset of puberty in Tazegzawt lambs, an endangered Algerian sheep: Body weight, thoracic perimeter, testicular growth, and seminal parameters. Veterinary world, v. 11, n. 7, p. 889, 2018. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (NRC). Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants: Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2007. NOTTER, D. R.; LUCAS, J. R.; MCCLAUGHERTY, F. S. Accuracy of estimation of testis weight from in situ testis measures in ram lambs. Theriogenology, v. 15, n. 2, p. 227-234, 1981. SEJIAN, V. et al. Effect of body condition score on the allometric measurements and reproductive performance of Garole X Malpura ewes under hot semi-arid environment. Journal of Dairy, Veterinary & Animal Research, v. 2, n. 6, p. 1-4, 2015. PACHECO, A.; MADELLA-OLIVEIRA, A. F.; QUIRINO, C. R. Biometria e formas dos testículos em cordeiros da raça Santa Inês explorados em regime de manejo intensivo. Revista Brasileira de Ciências Agrárias, v. 5, n. 1, p. 123-128, 2010. REGO NETO, A. A. et al. Population genetic structure of Santa Inês sheep in Brazil. Tropical animal health and production, v. 50, n. 3, p. 503-508, 2018. RHIND, S. M. Effects of maternal nutrition on fetal and neonatal reproductive development and function. Animal Reproduction Science, v. 82, p. 169-181, 2004. RIBEIRO, E. L. A.; GONZÁLEZ-GARCÍA, E. Indigenous sheep breeds in Brazil: potential role for contributing to the sustainability of production systems. Tropical animal health and production, v. 48, n. 7, p. 1305-1313, 2016. RIBEIRO, M. S. et al. Repeatability and effect of age on reproductive characteristics in Santa Ines rams. Archivos de zootecnia, v. 67, n. 257, p. 143-147, 2018. RUSSEL, A. J. F.; DONEY, J. M.; GUNN, R. G. Subjective assessment of body fat in live sheep. The Journal of Agricultural Science, v. 72, n. 3, p. 451-454, 1969. SILVA, N. V. et al. Medidas in vivo e da carcaça e constituintes não carcaça de ovinos alimentados com diferentes níveis do subproduto agroindustrial da goiaba. Revista Brasileira de Saúde e Produção Animal, v. 17, n. 1, p. 101-115, 2016. SILVA, P. et al. Influence of placentally mediated fetal growth restriction on the onset of puberty in male and female lambs. Reproduction, v. 122, n. 3, p. 375-383, 2001. SIQUEIRA FILHO, E. R. Influência dos níveis protéicos fornecidos na dieta sobre o sistema reprodutivo de carneiros. 2007. 75 f. Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual Paulista, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia de Botucatu, 2007. SOUZA, J. S da et al. Biometric measurements of Santa Inês meat sheep reared on Brachiaria brizantha pastures in Northeast Brazil. Plos one, v. 14, n. 7, p. e0219343, 2019. (shrink)

‘Low-Quality Democracy’ - The Validity of the Notion and D.L. Horowitz’s Exemplification: The Case of Indonesia. This article discusses problems relating to terms used to define former authoritarian states, which are already called democratic, although some undemocratic features still characterize them. The latest English language literature on political science relating to this subject uses three terms that seem similar in meaning: ‘illiberal democracy,’ ‘flawed democracy,’ and ‘low-quality democracy.’ They have not been conceptualized so far. This means that there has been (...) no transition from the stage of ideas or views on their content, i.e., pre-theoretical notions to theorized concepts. Consequently, the terms cannot be understood unequivocally. The term ‘low-quality democracy’ has been recently propagated by Donald L. Horowitz, a renowned American political scientist. This researcher uses the term primarily to name the type of political regime that was formed after 1998 in Indonesia – the third largest democratic country in terms of population in the world. Not only does Horowitz use this term, but he also tries to explain its importance using the example of the imperfections that characterize the young Indonesian democracy. The aim of this article is to answer three questions: firstly, what is – according to Horowitz – the content of the term ‘low-quality democracy’ exemplified by the Indonesian democracy?; secondly, what problems of low-quality democracy has Horowitz identified on the example of Indonesia?; and thirdly, should this term be used in political science literature if similar terms such as ‘illiberal democracy’ and ‘flawed democracy’ are also used? Artykuł traktuje o problemach dotyczących pojęć stosowanych do określania byłych państw autorytarnych, które choć zaliczane są już do demokratycznych, to nadal charakteryzują się pewnymi niedemokratycznymi cechami. W najnowszym anglojęzycznym piśmiennictwie politologicznym odnoszącym się do tego zagadnienia rywalizują ze sobą głównie trzy zbliżone znaczeniowo terminy: „demokracja nieliberalna” (illiberal democracy), „demokracja wadliwa” (flawed democracy) i „demokracja o niskiej jakości” (low-quality democracy). Nie doczekały się one dotąd konceptualizacji. Oznacza to, że w żadnym ze wskazanych przypadków nie nastąpiło przejście od stadium wyobrażenia, czy też poglądów na temat ich treści, a zatem od pojęć przed-teoretycznych (ang. notions) na poziom pojęć steoretyzowanych (ang. concepts). W konsekwencji nie mogą być i nie są rozumiane w sposób jednoznaczny. Termin demokracja o niskiej jakości zyskał niedawno propagatora w osobie uznanego amerykańskiego politologa Donalda L. Horowitza. Badacz ten stosuje przedmiotowy termin przede wszystkim w celu nazwania rodzaju reżimu politycznego, który został wykształcony po 1998 r. w Indonezji – trzecim największym pod względem wielkości populacji demokratycznym państwie świata. Horowitz nie tylko jednak używa tego terminu, ale również próbuje wytłumaczyć jego znaczenie na przykładzie niedoskonałości, które charakteryzują młodą demokrację indonezyjską. Artykuł ma na celu wyjaśnienie trzech kwestii: po pierwsze, jaka jest treść terminu demokracja o niskiej jakości, którego egzemplifikacją – w opinii Horowitza – jest demokracja indonezyjska; po drugie, jakie problemy demokracji o niskiej jakości zidentyfikował Horowitz na przykładzie Indonezji; i po trzecie, czy zasadne jest stosowanie tego pojęcia w piśmiennictwie politologicznym w sytuacji, gdy w użyciu pozostają takie zbliżone znaczeniowo terminy jak demokracja nieliberalna i demokracja wadliwa. (shrink)

RIGHT TO SILENCE-UK, U.S, FRANCE, and GERMANY SALLY RAMAGE (TRADE MARK REGISTERED) WIPO Orchid ID 0000-0002-8854-4293 Pages 2-30 Current Criminal Law, Volume 1, Issue 2, -/- Sally Ramage, BA (Hons), MBA, LLM, MPhil, MCIJ, MCMI, DA., ASLS, BAWP. Orchid ID 0000-0002-8854-4293 Publisher & Managing Editor Criminal Lawyer series [1980-2022](ISSN 2049-8047) Current Criminal Law series [2008-2022] (ISSN 1758-8405) and Criminal Law News series [2008-2022] (ISSN 1758-8421). Sweet & Maxwell (Thomson Reuters) (Licensed Annotator of UK Statutes) in annual law books Current Law (...) Statutes Annotated, (2006, 2009, 2010 editions) (sole and separate S&M contracts) for 7 UK Criminal Justice Statutes: UK Safeguarding Vulnerable Persons Act 2006; UK International Development Act 2006; UK Fraud Act 2006; UK Policing and Crime Act 2009, UK Local Democracy Act 2009; UK Bribery Act 2010; and UK Crime and Security Act 2010. TradeMark SALLY RAMAGE ® (2005-2025) in the UK, 2401827; WIPO TradeMark SALLY RAMAGE® 900614; USA TradeMark 3,440,910) (2008-2028). WARNING: The doing of an unauthorized act in relation to a copyright work may result in both a civil claim for damages and criminal prosecution. -/- ABSTRACT The privilege of the right to silence can be traced back to the 12th century, becoming more developed in later centuries. -/- Table of cases European Court of Human Rights Deweer v Belgium [1980], Eckle v Germany [1982], DN v The Netherlands [1975], Funke v France [1993] 16 EHRR 297, JP v Austria [1989], Kansal v UK [2003] Application No 21413/02 Khan v UK [2000] 31 EHRR 45, Saunders v UK [1997] 23 EHRR 313, Schenk v Switzerland [1991] 13 EHRR 242, and Tora Tolmos v Spain [1995] Table of Cases United Kingdom Brown v Procurator Fiscal, Dunfermline, [2000] , The Times, Feb 14, High Ct Scot.; HM Advocate v Friel [1978] SLT; Lambe v Munster [1882] 10 QBD 110.; Pearse v Pearse [1846] Eng Rep 950 (on truth); Re Pantmaenog Timber Co Ltd [2003] HL; R v Bryce [1992] 95 Cr App Rep 320; R v Canale [1990] 2 All ER 187; R v Fitzpatrick [1995] 4 SCR 154; R v Herbert [1990] 2 SCR 151; R V Hertfordshire County Council, ex parte Green Environmental Industries and another [2000] 1 All ER 773; R v Keenan [1989] Crim LR 720; R v Maguire [1990] Cr App Rep 115; R v Pound, Green and ors [2004]; R v Sang [1979] Crim LR 655; R v Saunders [1986] unreported; R v Seelig, R v Spens [1991] CA; R v Smith [1992] 95 Cr App. R. 191; R v Steen and ors [2003] unreported; R v Walsh [1981] CrimLR 822; R V Ward 96 Cr App R [1993]; R v Weekes [1993] Crim LR 211; R v White [1999] 2 SCR 417; R v Young [2003] unreported; Thompson Newspaper v Canada [1990] 1 SCR 425; Walsh Automation (Europe) Ltd v Bridgeman and ors [2002] EWHC 1344 QB France-Law France 1789 Declaration des driots de l‟homme et du citoyen 1808 Code d ‟instruction criminelle 1946 Constitution 1958 Code de procedure penale 2000 Penal Code Germany-Law Germany 1871 Criminal Code 1877 Criminal Procedure Code (St PO) 1877 Judicial Organisation Law 1949 Constitution 1975 Criminal Code 1998 Criminal Code Table of Cases Germany Germany BGH Admissibility of secret tape recordings judgement 14 June 1960, in BGHSt 14, 358 BGH Lie detector judgement 16 Feb 1954, in BGHSt 5, 332. BberfG Decision concerning the applicability of ne bis in idem 31 March 1987, in BberfGE 75,1; BGH Sweeping deception of suspect judgement 24 August 1988, in BGHSt 36, 328. BGH Judgement 24 August 1993, in BGHSt 39, 305 Table of Cases United States United States of America California v Byres [1971] 402 U.S. 424; Fisher v United States 475 U.S. 391 [1986]; Griffin v California [1965] 380 US 609 [; Hoffman v United States [1950] 341 U.S. 479; Supreme Court Baldwin v NY, 399 US 143 [1970]; Supreme Court Chavez v Martinez , U.S. 123 [2003]; Supreme Court Doyle v Ohio, 426 U.S. 610 [1976]; Supreme Court Escobedo v Illinois, 378 U.S. 478 [1964]; Supreme Court Giglio v US, 405 U.S. 150 [1972] Supreme Court Harris v NY, 401 U.S. 222 [1971]; Supreme Court Kirby v Illinois, 406 U.S. 682 [1972]; Supreme Court Miranda v Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 [1966]; Supreme Court Moore v Illinois, 408 U.S. 768 [1972]; Supreme Court Moran v Burbine, 475 U.S. [1986]; Supreme Court Orzoco v Texas, 324 U.S.24 [1969]; Supreme Court US v Hale [1975] 422 US 17; Supreme Court US v Leon, 468 U.S. 897 [1984]; Supreme Court US v Salerno, 481 U.S. 739 [1987]; Twining v New Jersey 211 US 78 113 -/- . (shrink)

PRINCÍPIOS DA DIGESTÃO DOS ALIMENTOS NOS BEZERROS -/- -/- E. I. C. da Silva -/- Departamento de Agropecuária – IFPE Campus Belo Jardim -/- Departamento de Zootecnia – UFRPE sede -/- -/- PRINCÍPIOS DA DIGESTÃO DOS ALIMENTOS NOS BEZERROS -/- -/- INTRODUÇÃO -/- Se todos os bezerros pudessem ser criados por suas mães, haveria pouca necessidade de inúmeros livros, artigos e trabalhos, como esse, sobre a criação e o manejo básico desses animais. A maioria das vacas desempenha um ótimo papel (...) na criação dos seus descendentes, desde que sejam tomados os devidos cuidados com relação a alimentação, saúde e a outros aspectos relativos à criação desses neonatos. A essência da pecuária bovina relativa à criação de bezerros é manter esses animais vivos e aptos o suficiente para desempenhar atividades produtivas de grande importância na propriedade. Para tanto, os criadores necessitam entender o desenvolvimento do trato digestivo do bezerro e os conceitos básicos da digestão dos alimentos por ele, e é isso que pretendo aclarar de forma clara e concisa com esse trabalho. -/- -/- 1.1 O TRATO DIGESTIVO DO BEZERRO -/- Um animal adulto necessita de quatro estômagos funcionais para dar-lhe a capacidade de utilizar a ampla gama de alimentos disponíveis. -/- O retículo e o rúmen abrigam milhões de micróbios que fermentam e digerem o material vegetal, em especial às presentes nas forragens. O omaso permite a absorção de água do conteúdo do intestino. O abomaso, ou quarto estômago, é o verdadeiro estômago, comparável ao dos humanos, e permite a digestão ácida dos alimentos. -/- O bezerro muito jovem não desenvolve a capacidade de digerir o pasto, sendo assim o abomaso é o único estômago funcional ao nascer. Tanto os animais recém-nascidos como os adultos têm um intestino delgado funcional que permite a digestão alcalina dos alimentos. -/- A figura 1 ilustra a anatomia dos estômagos e intestino delgado de um bezerro recém-nascido. Esse diagrama esquemático mostra as dimensões relativas dos quatro estômagos, o sulco esofágico, que vai do esôfago até o abomaso, e o esfíncter pilórico ou válvula no fundo do abomaso, que controla a velocidade de movimento do conteúdo do intestino no duodeno. -/- O omaso e o abomaso representam cerca de 70% da capacidade total do estômago no bezerro recém-nascido. Por outro lado, nas vacas adultas, eles compõem apenas 30% da capacidade total do estômago (figura 2). -/- A digestão dos alimentos é auxiliada pela secreção de certos produtos químicos denominados enzimas, que estão presentes nas várias partes do intestino. Por exemplo, os bezerros produzem a enzima renina na parede do abomasal para auxiliar na digestão das proteínas do leite, enquanto a lactase é produzida na parede do duodeno para a digestão do açúcar do leite (lactose). Estas enzimas operam mais eficazmente em diferentes níveis de acidez no conteúdo do intestino, ácido no abomaso e alcalino no duodeno. Para conseguir isso, o bezerro segrega eletrólitos, ou sais minerais, com as enzimas, para mudar o conteúdo do intestino de um tipo para outro. -/- Os produtos finais da digestão dos diferentes componentes dos alimentos são absorvidos através da parede do intestino, mediante as vilosidades intestinais, para a corrente sanguínea, onde são levados para as diferentes partes do corpo para o crescimento e desenvolvimento do animal. -/- -/- 1.2 O BEZERRO ALIMENTADO COM LEITE -/- O Leite ou substituto do leite, quer seja apreendido através de uma teta ou bebido de um balde, é canalizado do esôfago através do sulco esofágico para o abomaso. Este sulco é um pequeno canal na parede do rúmen que é controlado por músculos que permitem que os líquidos sejam diretamente enviados para o abomaso e que não entrem no rúmen. O sulco é ativado em resposta a diferentes estímulos. Funciona bem quando os bezerros amamentam-se através das tetas das mães, mas às vezes não funciona quando bebem de um balde. Essa parece ser uma condição psicológica em resposta aos bezerros separados de suas mães. A maioria dos bezerros podem ser treinados pelo tratador para beber o leite do balde rapidamente e bem, a metodologia empregada é a da persuasão do animal, ao qual o mesmo possa responder positivamente à nova rotina diária e à mãe substituta na forma do criador do bezerro. Quando o leite ou o substituto do leite entra no abomaso, forma um coágulo firme dentro de alguns minutos sob a influência das enzimas renina e pepsina. Este é o mesmo processo envolvido na fabricação de queijo ou junket, usando renina para coagular a proteína do leite. A coagulação do leite retarda a taxa em que flui para fora do abomaso, permitindo assim uma liberação constante de nutrientes alimentares em todo o intestino e, eventualmente, para a corrente sanguínea. Pode levar de 12 a 18 horas para que a coalhada de leite seja totalmente digerida. -/- As enzimas que atuam nas proteínas do leite requerem um ambiente ácido e esse é fornecido pela secreção do ácido clorídrico no abomaso. No entanto, até que a digestão ácida esteja operando de forma eficiente, e isso pode levar até sete dias, a única forma de proteína que pode ser digerida é a caseína. Não há substituto para a caseína no bezerro muito jovem. Os substitutos do leite que contêm outras formas de proteína não podem ser devidamente digeridos até que os bezerros sejam mais velhos. Logo, é necessário muito cuidado para não fornecer substitutos ou sucedâneos que contenham fontes proteicas que não possam ser digeridas pelo estômago do animal, para que não ocasione complicações gastrintestinais. -/- A digestão do leite pode ser melhorada com a inclusão de coalho, que pode ser obtido a partir de fábricas de queijo ou aditivos comerciais de leite de bezerro para a primeira semana ou mais. Esses produtos comerciais podem fornecer ácidos adicionais para reduzir o pH abomasal e incrementar a quantidade de enzimas e bactérias específicas para aumentar a taxa de degradação da coalhada de leite. Tais aditivos são chamados probióticos, na medida em que ajudam nos processos digestivos normais. A pesquisa nem sempre os encontrou para melhorar o desempenho e a saúde dos bezerros, e eles são mais propensos a ser benéficos quando os bezerros estão sofrendo de problemas de saúde. Além disso, a sua eficácia, em termos de custo-benefício é, por vezes, questionada. -/- Qualquer leite de uma alimentação anterior está envolvido neste coágulo recém-formado. As proteínas líquidas de soro de leite e a lactose são rapidamente separadas da coalhada de leite e passam para o abomaso. A gordura do leite contida na coalhada de leite é decomposta por outra enzima, a lipase. Esta é secretado na boca pela saliva e incorporada quando o leite é engolido. A alimentação pelas tetas em vez da alimentação através do balde parece produzir mais saliva e, portanto, mais lipase. A digestão adicional da proteína do leite e da gordura ocorre no duodeno com a ajuda das enzimas produzidas no pâncreas. -/- A lactose, que é rapidamente liberada da coalhada de leite no abomaso, é dividida em glicose e galactose e estas são absorvidas na corrente sanguínea para formar a principal fonte de energia para os bezerros jovens. -/- As gorduras são divididas em ácidos graxos e glicerol para absorção e uso como energia, enquanto as proteínas são divididas em aminoácidos e peptídeos para absorção e uso como fontes de proteína corporal. -/- O amido de cereais, por exemplo, é uma importante fonte de energia em bezerros mais velhos, mas esses animais, nas suas primeiras semanas de vida, não conseguem digerir o amido. -/- O abomaso não é ácido até que o bezerro tenha 1-2 dias de idade e isso apresenta vantagens e desvantagens. A principal vantagem é que as proteínas imunes no colostro não podem ser digeridas nesse compartimento estomacal, por isso são absorvidas na corrente sanguínea na mesma forma quando produzidas pela vaca. Isso garante o seu papel como anticorpos para proteger contra as doenças e infecções. A baixa acidez do conteúdo abomasal no bezerro recém-nascido constitui um risco potencial das bactérias (e provavelmente vírus) tomadas através da boca. Estes não serão mortos pela digestão ácida, sendo assim podem passar para os intestinos, onde podem fazer mal ao bezerro recém-nascido. -/- Todos os bezerros pegam bactérias nos primeiros dias de vida e isso é essencial para o desenvolvimento normal do rúmen (flora microbiana). No entanto, a primeira bactéria a colonizar o intestino também pode causar danos. Desde que o bezerro tenha bebido colostro, os anticorpos maternos podem controlar a propagação dessas bactérias mais nocivas. -/- O bezerro alimentado com leite deve, então, produzir uma digestão ácida no abomaso e uma digestão alcalina no duodeno. Isto é conseguido pela produção de eletrólitos na parede do intestino. -/- Bezerros que sofrem de escoriações devido a distúrbios nutricionais ou infecções bacterianas podem perder grandes quantidades de água e eletrólitos em suas fezes. Estes devem ser reabastecidos como parte do tratamento para as escoriações. -/- O colostro é o primeiro leite produzido por vacas recém-paridas. Além de fornecer nutrientes essenciais para a alimentação animal, fornece anticorpos maternos que permitem a transferência passiva de imunidade contra doenças. As recomendações para a alimentação com colostro serão abordadas brevemente em outro trabalho. -/- -/- 1.3 DESENVOLVIMENTO DO RÚMEN E O PROCESSO DE DESMAME -/- Quando os bezerros são desmamados, o custo da criação diminui acentuadamente. Os custos de alimentação são mais baixos, os insumos de trabalho são reduzidos e a incidência de problemas de saúde é menor. No sentido econômico, faz sentido desmamar os bezerros assim que for razoável. No entanto, o bezerro é forçado a sofrer várias mudanças dramáticas, a saber: -/-  A fonte primária de nutrientes muda de líquido para sólido. -/-  A quantidade de matéria seca que o bezerro recebe é reduzida. -/-  O bezerro deve adaptar-se de um tipo monogástrico a um ruminante de digestão, que inclui a fermentação de alimentos. -/-  Mudanças na habitação e no manejo muitas vezes ocorrem em torno do desmame, o que pode aumentar o estresse. -/- Ao nascer, o rúmen é uma parte pequena e estéril do intestino que, ao desmame deve se tornar o compartimento mais importante dos quatro estômagos. Deve aumentar em tamanho, atividade metabólica interna e fluxo sanguíneo externo. Os cinco requisitos para o desenvolvimento ruminal são: -/-  Estabelecimento de bactérias. -/-  Líquido. -/-  Saída de material (ação muscular). -/-  Capacidade absortiva do tecido. -/-  Substrato para permitir o crescimento bacteriano, tais como minerais reciclados, bem como nutrientes para alimentação. -/- Antes do consumo de alimentos sólidos, as bactérias existentes fermentam o cabelo ingerido, o estrato e o leite que flui do abomaso para o rúmen. A maior parte da água que entra no rúmen provém da água livre (água real não contida no leite ou na solução substituta do leite). O leite contornará o rúmen através do sulco esofágico, enquanto a água livre não. -/- O rúmen se desenvolve a partir de um órgão muito pequeno em bezerros recém-nascidos (1-2 L) para a parte mais importante do intestino (25-30 L) por 3 meses de idade. Ele pode aumentar muito rapidamente durante as primeiras semanas de vida, dado o manejo da alimentação direita. -/- O crescimento do rúmen ocorre apenas sob a influência dos produtos finais da digestão no mesmo, que resultam da fermentação de alimentos sólidos pelos micróbios presentes nesse compartimento. O desenvolvimento ocorre em grande parte através do crescimento das papilas ruminais (figura 5 e 6) na parede ruminal (estruturas semelhantes a folhas na superfície interna), que aumentam a área superficial do rúmen e, portanto, a sua capacidade de absorver estes produtos finais de digestão. Portanto, os concentrados favorecem melhor o desenvolvimento dessas papilas ruminais. Para tanto, é necessário, com um tempo, ir incrementando a dieta sólida gradativamente para que esses animais deixem de consumir o leite das vacas produtoras e possam alimentar-se de ração e pastagens, que é a finalidade da criação de bovinos, ou seja, criar animais com menor custo possível e engordá-los através de ração, mas principalmente de pastagens. -/- A capacidade do rúmen e a ingestão de alimentos sólidos estão intimamente relacionadas. O desenvolvimento do rúmen é muito lento em bezerros alimentados com grandes quantidades de leite. O leite satisfaz seus apetites para que eles não tenham fome suficiente para comer qualquer alimento sólido. Logo, é necessário diminuir paulatinamente o fornecedor do leite para esses animais, favorecendo a ingestão de alimentos sólidos e desenvolvendo o rúmen, estômago que digere as fibras das forragens e que os tona animais peculiares. -/- A ruminação pode ocorrer com cerca de 2 semanas de idade e é uma boa indicação de que o rúmen está se desenvolvendo. Alimentos sólidos, bem como a ruminação, estimulam a produção de saliva e isso fornece nutrientes como ureia e bicarbonato de sódio para produzir os substratos para o crescimento e desenvolvimento da flora bacteriana. -/- No desmame precoce, é importante limitar a quantidade de leite oferecida e a sua disponibilidade durante todo o dia. Também é essencial fornecer alimentos sólidos. Os grosseiros (de baixa ou alta qualidade) devem ser oferecidos em combinação com concentrados de alta qualidade. -/- O criador deve tomar cuidado com o fornecimento de alimentos como a ração farelada, uma vez que essa ração pode entrar pelas vias nasais e ocasionar complicações respiratórias; há alguns relatos de bezerros mortos após a ingestão de ração farelada, na autópsia de um dos casos foi diagnosticada uma morte por esses grãos farelados presentes no pulmão. Portanto, para evitar complicações o ideal é que se forneça uma ração denominada peletizada. -/- Os alimentos grosseiros (volumosos) estimulam o desenvolvimento do rúmen, enquanto os concentrados fornecem nutrientes para a alimentação animal que não são fornecidos pelas quantidades limitadas de leite oferecidas. Sem os concentrados, o crescimento dos bezerros é lento, mas o rúmen ainda se desenvolve, resultando em animais barrigudos. -/- A ureia fornece nitrogênio para os micróbios, enquanto o bicarbonato de sódio atua como um tampão ruminal, ajudando a manter um pH estável no conteúdo do rúmen. Isso é, particularmente, importante quando os bezerros comem grandes quantidades de grãos de cereais na vida adulta, pois os micróbios do rúmen podem produzir muito ácido lático durante a fermentação desse material. -/- Envenenamento por grãos ou acidose ocorre quando os níveis de ácido lático são excessivamente elevados e tornam-se tóxicos para os micróbios do rúmen e, eventualmente, para o animal. Assim como os produtos finais que são absorvidos através da parede do rúmen, a fermentação microbiana produz os gases dióxido de carbono e metano e estes são normalmente exalados. Quando algo impede a fuga destes gases do rúmen, o inchaço pode se manifestar em qualquer fase da vida, diz-se do animal estufado. -/- -/- 1.4 O PAPEL DA FORRAGEM NO PROCESSO DE DESMAME -/- Existem inúmeras controvérsias acerca do papel da forragem no processo de desmame. Pesquisas realizadas na década de 1980 indicaram claramente que a forragem era benéfica, enquanto pesquisas da década de 1990 descobriram que nem sempre era necessário o fornecimento da forragem para que os bezerros fossem desmamados e que não sofresse estresse e nem apresentasse baixa eficiência produtiva e reprodutiva no futuro. Na maioria das pesquisas anteriores, os bezerros eram desmamados com a oferta de concentrados moídos como pellets com ou sem a presença de feno longo ou palha. Porém, a inclusão de forragens na dieta melhorou a ingestão e o desempenho, além de permitir o desmame precoce. -/- Na pesquisa posterior, os bezerros geralmente alimentavam-se de concentrados grosseiramente moídos, além de alguns volumosos, enquanto alguns até incluíam volumosos picados finos na mistura (às vezes chamados de mistura muesli por apresentar o capim e a ração). Nesses estudos, verificou-se que a inclusão de feno ou palha adicional teve pouco efeito no desempenho pré-desmame. -/- Os sistemas de criação de bezerros australianos frequentemente diferem dos demais, especialmente em áreas de parto sazonais. Um número excessivo elevado de bezerros precisam ser criados de uma só vez para lhes fornecer, a todos, currais individuais durante todo o seu período de amamentação. Consequentemente, os bezerros são criados em grupos. Além disso, os ingredientes da maioria dos concentrados para esses animais são finamente moídos. Nessas situações, descobriu-se que a palha limpa é um alimento útil e que deve ser incluso no período pré-desmame. Alguns agricultores preferem feno de boa qualidade, porém estes agricultores geralmente têm bezerros em grupos muito pequenos, muitas vezes um ou dois, por isso possuem maior controle sobre a ingestão de forragem. -/- Figura 7: A alimentação volumosa de bezerros alimentados com leite é uma questão controversa. Imagem cedida pelo IPA -/- É difícil e, portanto, mais caro que os produtores de rações incorporem feno picado nas refeições dos bezerros. Os pellets são muito mais fáceis, pois eles vão fluir para silos. Por fim, os produtores de leite devem incluir o componente volumoso no regime alimentar pré-desmame. A pastagem não é a fonte ideal de forragem volumosa para os bezerros alimentados com leite, uma vez que possui muito pouca fibra e uma baixa densidade de energia alimentar. O seu elevado teor de água limita a sua capacidade de fornecer energia alimentar adequada aos animais em crescimento. Para ingerir a pastagem a capacidade ruminal deveria ser maior, bezerros jovens simplesmente não conseguem comer pasto suficiente, a menos que seja de alta em qualidade. -/- Os bezerros criados com leite e fornecimento gradual de concentrados apresentam uma boa função ruminal às 3 semanas de vida, além de possuírem uma suficiente capacidade ruminal para o desmame entre às 4-6 semanas de idade. No entanto, se a dieta for baseada em leite restrito e pastagem de alta qualidade, a capacidade do rúmen pode não ser suficiente para o desmame até às 8-10 semanas de vida. Mesmo assim, as taxas de crescimento seriam menores em bezerros desmamados com base alimentar somente à pasto, uma vez que a ingestão de energia é insuficiente devido às limitações físicas da capacidade ruminal. -/- Se a qualidade for muito boa e produza apetite, os bezerros preferem volumosos ao invés do concentrado, o que leva a uma ingestão reduzida de nutrientes durante alimentação, tendo como efeito um crescimento mais lento. Quando volumosos e concentrados fornecem apetite no animal, juntamente com o leite limitado, os bezerros podem comer cerca de 10% de palha e 90% de concentrados. Sem o volumoso e a ruminação resultante, o desenvolvimento do rúmen será mais lento devido à falta de saliva e produtos finais da digestão de fibras presentes na parede celular das forragens. -/- -/- REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- -/- BEN ASHER, Aharon. Manual de cría de becerras. Zaragoza: Acribia, 1999. -/- BITTAR, Carla Maris Machado; PORTAL, Rafaela Nunes Sanchez; PEREIRA, Anna Carolina Fett da Cunha. Criação de bezerras leiteiras. Piracicaba: EDUSP, 2018. -/- BLUM, J. W. Nutritional physiology of neonatal calves. Journal of animal physiology and animal nutrition, v. 90, n. 1‐2, p. 1-11, 2006. -/- CAMPOS, OF de. Criação de bezerros até a desmama. Coronel Pacheco: EMBRAPA/CNPGL, 1985. -/- COELHO, S. G. Criação de bezerros. II Simpósio Mineiro de Buiatria, Anais., Belo Horizonte, 2005. -/- DAVIS, Carl L. et al. The development, nutrition, and management of the young calf. Iowa State University Press, 1998. -/- DE OLIVEIRA, Juliana Silva; DE MOURA ZANINE, Anderson; SANTOS, Edson Mauro. Fisiologia, manejo e alimentação de bezerros de corte. Arquivos de Ciências Veterinárias e Zoologia da UNIPAR, v. 10, n. 1, 2007. -/- DRACKLEY, James K. Calf nutrition from birth to breeding. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, v. 24, n. 1, p. 55-86, 2008. -/- FERREIRA, Lucas Silveira et al. Desempenho animal e desenvolvimento do rúmen de bezerros leiteiros aleitados com leite integral ou sucedâneo. Boletim de Indústria Animal, v. 65, n. 4, p. 337-345, 2008. -/- GUILLOTEAU, P.; ZABIELSKI, R.; BLUM, J. W. Gastrointestinal tract and digestion in the young ruminant: ontogenesis, adaptations, consequences and manipulations. J Physiol Pharmacol, v. 60, n. Suppl 1, p. 37-46, 2009. -/- HUBER, J. T. Development of the digestive and metabolic apparatus of the calf. Journal of Dairy Science, v. 52, n. 8, p. 1303-1315, 1969. -/- LONGENBACH, J. I.; HEINRICHS, Arlyn Judson. A review of the importance and physiological role of curd formation in the abomasum of young calves. Animal feed science and technology, v. 73, n. 1-2, p. 85-97, 1998. -/- LOPES, Marcos Aurélio; VIEIRA, P. de F. Criação de bezerros leiteiros. Jaboticabal: Funep, 1998. -/- LUCCI, Carlos de Sousa. Bovinos leiteiros jovens: nutrição, manejo, doenças. São Paulo: Nobel, 1989. -/- ROY, James Henry Barstow et al. The calf. Boston: Butterworths., 1980. -/- SAVAGE, E. S.; MCCAY, C. M. The nutrition of calves; A review. Journal of Dairy Science, v. 25, n. 7, p. 595-650, 1942. -/- THIVEND, P.; TOULLEC, R.; GUILLOTEAU, P. Digestive adaptation in the preruminant. In: Digestive physiology and metabolism in ruminants. Springer, Dordrecht, 1980. p. 561-585. (shrink)

This essay suggests that Continental Studies of Evil need a more global approach in thinking about political evils of today. Highlighting the need for a more comparative and global perspective, I explore two proposals: first, the in-between space of the geographical binaries of East/West and Global South/Global North cultivates many political evils. Second, taking issue with the conviction in Continental philosophy that the Holocaust caused a rupture in the thinking of evil, I argue for the continuity of evils and characterize (...) the insistence on the unprecedented character of the Holocaust as an example of Eurocentrism. (shrink)

The racist killing of Georg Floyd in the Summer of 2020 created waves of protests not only in the U.S. but all over the globe. In Turkey, my home country, there were also street demonstrations that demanded justice for Floyd, but “Twitter activism” was more popular. Turkish-speaking-twitter became a hotbed for condemnations. Amidst an array of tweets condemning Floyd’s racist killing, one stood out and made it to the headlines of alternative media outlets. A former official of the authoritarian Turkish (...) government, Yusuf Yerkel, wrote the following tweet in Turkish on June 5, 2020, in response to Floyd’s racist killing; here, I provide an English translation of his infamous tweet (the Turkish original of which is still available on Yerkel’s account on Twitter): “The reason that protests grew to this extent in the U.S. seems to be based on a phenomenon, in H. Arendt’s terms, ‘banality of evil,’ which has become evident in the face of Floyd’s murder. An ordinary White cop’s atrocity as an “everyday job” was the tipping point.” Yerkel herein uses Arendt’s notion of the banality of evil (see esp. p. 287 of the book) to describe Derek Chauvin’s atrocious act, where the evil of racist police violence has become ordinary, banal, and “every day.”. (shrink)

Since 2001, Continental philosophical studies of evil suggest that we are forced to rethink the category of evil as we face acts of terrorism on a global scale. In light of this suggestion, this article traces the idea of the “inscrutability of evil” as a common lens through which we associate the category of evil with the phenomena we identify as evil. This idea finds its first modern formulation in Kant’s theory of radical evil. I argue that Hannah Arendt and (...) Emmanuel Levinas follow Kant in identifying evil as an inscrutable phenomenon. While they all agree that evil cannot be rationalized, integrated into reason, or understood within the framework of theodicy, for Kant, evil is inscrutable because it is grounded in freedom; for Arendt, evil is inscrutable because it is “banal;” and for Levinas, evil is inscrutable because it is “excessive” and “useless.” My analysis demonstrates that inscrutability is an essential marker of the concept of evil since it is found in all three accounts as a feature of evil, even though in each account a different type of evil is at stake (moral, political, and existential). (shrink)

At the end of the 19th century, Turkish romanticism Tevfik Fikret, Namık Kemal, Rıza Tevfik, and Mehmet Ersoy had a powerful impact on the literature that entered the entire Caucasus region. 20th-century Azerbaijan romantics Huseyin Javid and Mohammed Hadi, especially young people, wrote and created in line with their influence and style. The article discusses the aspects of the effect of Turkish and Azerbaijan romanticism on the creativity of Bahtiyar Vahabzade. This study also included the impact of Turkish romanticism (...) on the creativity of Bahtiyar Vahabzade. In addition, the extraordinary influence of prominent artists such as Hüseyin Javid and Muhammed Hadi, the prominent representatives of Azerbaijan romanticism, on the creativity of Bahtiyar Vahabzade has been clarified. These nfluenced Bahtiyar Vahabzade both ideologically and artistically. Accordingly, this study aims to reveal how Bahtiyar Vahabzade, who exhibits his ideological and literary stance inspired by Turkish and Azerbaijan romanticism, reflects these influences in his work. It has been concluded that Bahtiyar Vahabzade's poetry is related to modern Turkish literature and poetry as well as classical Turkish poetry at the time of creation. (shrink)

The scholarship on Frantz Fanon’s theorization of violence is crowded with interpretations that follow the Arendtian paradigm of violence. These interpretations often discuss whether violence is instrumental or non-instrumental in Fanon’s work. This reading, I believe, is the result of approaching Fanon through Hannah Arendt’s framing of violence, i.e. through a binary paradigm of instrumental versus non-instrumental violence. Even some Fanon scholars who question Arendt’s reading of Fanon, do so by employing a similar binary logic, hence repeating the same either/or (...) paradigm of instrumental versus non-instrumental violence. I aim to challenge such interpretations of Fanon by demonstrating that in the context of anticolonial armed struggle in which Fanon writes, the either/or framework of the instrumental/non-instrumental binary of violence cannot fully capture his perspective. Violence can indeed be conceived as having both constructive and instrumental aspects. My argument is supported by Fanon’s corpus, including his 1960 Accra speech, “Why We Use Violence” in Alienation and Freedom. This piece, I suggest, together with Fanon’s other writings, poses a direct challenge to the Arendtian binary of violence. My analysis resists positioning the difference between Arendt and Fanon through the instrumental/non-instrumental binary. By using Judith Butler’s notion of “frame” I complicate their difference and argue Arendt’s framing of violence prevents her from apprehending Fanon and – more importantly – interpretations of Fanon based on this Arendtian frame of violence inevitably lead to misinterpretations. (shrink)

Feminist social theory and female body experience are the twin themes of Iris Marion Young's twelve outstanding essays written over the past decade and brought together here. Her contributions to social theory raise critical questions about women and citizenship, the relations of capitalism and women's oppression, and the differences between a feminist theory that emphasizes women's difference and one that assumes a gender-neutral humanity. Loosely following a phenomenological method of description, Young's essays on female embodiment discuss female movement, (...) pregnancy, clothing, and the breasted body. In an introduction that situates her work in the context of shifts in feminist theory and politics over the past decade, Young emphasizes the rootedness of her theorizing in a dedicated and seasoned political activism. (shrink)

It is a widely held view that lying is defined in the traditional tripartite model as the conjunction of a statement, the false belief, and the intended deception. Much of the criticisms have been levelled at the third condition—intended deception—with contemporary counterexamples. My main criticism of the traditional and contemporary model of lying centres on that philosophers discard the social existence of the hearer. Schutz‘s phenomenological sociology gives a sheer inspiration to redefine the third condition by taking the hearer as (...) a consciously social being into account. Lying should be an intersubjective action for the Other from the perspective of the liar; it might be, thus, reasonable to assume that there should be commonsense awareness between the speaker and the hearer. This paper, by focusing on this commonsenseness and its typifications, introduces a new approach to the third condition: S must intend that H be induced to believe that p, where p is false. In this regard, once you lie, by being subjected to the taken-for-granted commonsenseness in our daily life, you must try as hard as possible to succeed in deceiving the hearer by stating that p. You, as a typical person, tell a typical lie in typical contexts for typical Others. The focus of attention, therefore, is on the hearer and it is the key to understanding that mere intent to deceive is too broad and unpragmatic for a social human being who always intends to flee the negative consequences of the context in which she has to lie. Making the extension narrower necessitates a new term, anti-social bullshit generally being replied rhetorically as "how can you expect me to believe that?" comprises the excluded cases. (shrink)

In Nicomachean Ethics VII Aristotle describes akrasia as a disposition. Taking into account that it is a disposition, I argue that akrasia cannot be understood on an epistemological basis alone, i.e., it is not merely a problem of knowledge that the akratic person acts the ways he does, but rather one is akratic due to a certain kind of habituation, where the person is not able to activate the potential knowledge s/he possesses. To stress this point, I focus on the (...) gap between potential knowledge and its activation, whereby I argue that the distinction between potential and actual knowledge is at the center of the problem of akrasia. I suggest that to elaborate on this gap, we must go beyond the limits of Nicomachean Ethics to Metaphysics IX, where we find Aristotle’s discussion of the distinction between potentiality and actuality. I further analyze the gap between potential and actual knowledge by means of Aristotle’s discussion of practical syllogism, where I argue that akrasia is a result of a conflict in practical reasoning. I conclude my paper by stressing that for the akratic person the action is determined with respect to the conclusion of the practical syllogism, where the conclusion is produced by means of a ‘conflict’ between the universal opinion which is potential and the particular opinion which is appetitive. (shrink)

This paper defines the form of prior knowledge that is required for sound inferences by analogy and single-instance generalizations, in both logical and probabilistic reasoning. In the logical case, the first order determination rule defined in Davies (1985) is shown to solve both the justification and non-redundancy problems for analogical inference. The statistical analogue of determination that is put forward is termed 'uniformity'. Based on the semantics of determination and uniformity, a third notion of "relevance" is defined, both logically and (...) probabilistically. The statistical relevance of one function in determining another is put forward as a way of defining the value of information: The statistical relevance of a function F to a function G is the absolute value of the change in one's information about the value of G afforded by specifying the value of F. This theory provides normative justifications for conclusions projected by analogy from one case to another, and for generalization from an instance to a rule. The soundness of such conclusions, in either the logical or the probabilistic case, can be identified with the extent to which the corresponding criteria (determination and uniformity) actually hold for the features being related. (shrink)

May a government attempt to improve the lives of its citizens by promoting the activities it deems valuable and discouraging those it disvalues? May it engage in such a practice even when doing so is not a requirement of justice in some strict sense, and even when the judgments of value and disvalue in question are likely to be subject to controversy among its citizens? These questions have long stood at the center of debates between political perfectionists and political neutralists. (...) In what follows I address a prominent cluster of arguments against political perfec- tionism—namely, arguments that focus on the coercive dimensions of state action. My main claim is simple: whatever concerns we might have about coercion, arguments from coercion fall short of supporting a thoroughgoing rejection of perfectionism, for the reason that perfectionist policies need not be coercive. The main body of the paper responds, however, to several neutra- list challenges to this last claim. (shrink)

We argue that there is a conflict among classical theism's commitments to divine simplicity, divine creative freedom, and omniscience. We start by defining key terms for the debate related to classical theism. Then we articulate a new argument, the Aloneness Argument, aiming to establish a conflict among these attributes. In broad outline, the argument proceeds as follows. Under classical theism, it's possible that God exists without anything apart from Him. Any knowledge God has in such a world would be wholly (...) intrinsic. But there are contingent truths in every world, including the world in which God exists alone. So, it's possible that God contingently has wholly intrinsic knowledge. But whatever is contingent and wholly intrinsic is an accident. So, God possibly has an accident. This is incompatible with classical theism. Finally, we consider and rebut several objections. (shrink)

We analyze the logical form of the domain knowledge that grounds analogical inferences and generalizations from a single instance. The form of the assumptions which justify analogies is given schematically as the "determination rule", so called because it expresses the relation of one set of variables determining the values of another set. The determination relation is a logical generalization of the different types of dependency relations defined in database theory. Specifically, we define determination as a relation between schemata of first (...) order logic that have two kinds of free variables: (1) object variables and (2) what we call "polar" variables, which hold the place of truth values. Determination rules facilitate sound rule inference and valid conclusions projected by analogy from single instances, without implying what the conclusion should be prior to an inspection of the instance. They also provide a way to specify what information is sufficiently relevant to decide a question, prior to knowledge of the answer to the question. (shrink)

Hello World! I am Young Mantis. I was born in a village, called the Jute Plant Village, near the Bird Village. The photo of mine was taken by Kingfisher the Wise of the Bird Village, showing me while just 3 days old. That’s why I looked very tiny, even when compared to a newborn leave of the jute plant where I was clinging. My friendship with Kingfisher the Wise has developed over time, going through a roller coaster ride, thus, (...) complicated. But we are still friends today. For this, I am pleased to express my gratitude for many things in life. (shrink)

Despite pervasive variation in the content of laws, legal theorists and anthropologists have argued that laws share certain abstract features and even speculated that law may be a human universal. In the present report, we evaluate this thesis through an experiment administered in 11 different countries. Are there cross‐cultural principles of law? In a between‐subjects design, participants (N = 3,054) were asked whether there could be laws that violate certain procedural principles (e.g., laws applied retrospectively or unintelligible laws), and also (...) whether there are any such laws. Confirming our preregistered prediction, people reported that such laws cannot exist, but also (paradoxically) that there are such laws. These results document cross‐culturally and –linguistically robust beliefs about the concept of law which defy people's grasp of how legal systems function in practice. (shrink)

In this article, I seek to assess the extent to which Theism, the claim that there is a God, can provide a true fundamental explanation for the instantiation of the grounding relation that connects the various entities within the layered structure of reality. More precisely, I seek to utilise the explanatory framework of Richard Swinburne within a specific metaphysical context, a ground-theoretic context, which will enable me to develop a true fundamental explanation for the existence of grounding. And thus, given (...) the truth of this type of explanation, we will have a further reason to believe in the existence of God. (shrink)

The selected effects or ‘etiological’ theory of Proper function is a naturalistic and realist account of biological teleology. It is used to analyse normativity in philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of medicine and elsewhere. The theory has been developed with a simple and intuitive view of natural selection. Traits are selected because of their positive effects on the fitness of the organisms that have them. These ‘selected effects’ are the Proper functions of the traits. Proponents argue that this (...) analysis of biological teleology has the unique advantage that the selected effect function of a trait is also a causal explanation of the trait: the trait exists because it performs this function. We show, however, that selected effect functions as currently defined explain the existence of traits only under highly restrictive assumptions about evolutionary dynamics. In many common scenarios in which traits evolve by natural selection, selected effect functions do not explain those traits. This is because definitions of selected effect function extract from any evolutionary scenario only the information that would be explanatorily relevant in the simple evolutionary scenario implicit in those definitions. When applied to more complex scenarios selected effect functions omit the key information that is explanatorily relevant in those scenarios. The assumptions required for selected effect functions to be explanatory are particularly unlikely to hold in the domain that its proponents care most about - the evolution of representation. A more adequate selected effects theory of Proper functions may be possible, but will require much greater attention to the structure of actual evolutionary explanations. (shrink)

Some time ago, the philosopher Luciano Floridi suggested that Western philosophy, and the mainstream contemporary approach to it traditionally called ‘analytic philosophy’, is in dire need of a reboot. The concern was that the discipline might be in a period of decadence. Analytic philosophy would be benefited by greater internationalization, wider and more transparent decision-making, and the reduction (as much as possible) of conflicts of interest as well as of its current habit of hiring and providing publication opportunities on the (...) basis of contacts, networking, and academic pedigree. If we are right, then we need a reconditioning of the institutional framework of analytic philosophy that adjusts it to the current global and interconnected world. (shrink)

It has recently been remarked that the argument for physicalism from the causal closure of the physical is incomplete. It is only effective against mental causation manifested in the action of putative mental forces that lead to acceleration of particles in the nervous system. Based on consideration of anomalous, physically unaccounted-for correlations of neural events, I argue that irreducible mental causation whose nature is at least prima facie probabilistic is conceivable. The manifestation of such causation should be accompanied by a (...) local violation of the Second Law of thermodynamics. I claim that mental causation can be viewed as the disposition of mental states to alter the state probability distribution within the nervous system, with no violation of the conservation laws. If confirmed by neurophysical research, it would indicate a kind of causal homogeneity of the world. Causation would manifest probabilistically in both quantum mechanical and psychophysical systems, and the dynamics of both would be determined by the temporal evolution of the corresponding system state function. Finally, I contend that a probabilistic account of mental causation can consistently explain the character of selectional states that ensure the uniformity of causal patterns, as well as the fact that different physical realizers of a mental property cause the same physical effects in different contexts. (shrink)

This essay presents an account of what it takes to live a philosophical way of life: practitioners must be committed to a worldview, structure their lives around it, and engage in truth‐directed practices. Contra John Cooper, it does not require that one’s life be solely guided by reason. Religious or tradition‐based ways of life count as truth directed as long as their practices are reasons responsive and would be truth directed if the claims made by their way of life are (...) correct. The essay argues that these three conditions can be met by progressors as well as sages. Making progress in how one acts in the world, and improving one’s understanding and direction through being part of a community is living a philosophical way of life. The offered view acknowledges more ways to develop the art of living and enables a broader range of people to count as living philosophically. (shrink)

There may be a limit on our capacity to suppress anthropocentric tendencies toward non-human others. Normally, we do not reach this limit in our dealings with animals, the environment, etc. Thus, continued striving to overcome anthropocentrism when confronted with these non-human others may be justified. Anticipation of super artificial intelligence may force us to face this limit, denying us the ability to free ourselves completely of anthropocentrism. This could be for our own good.

In this paper, I challenge a traditional assumption concerning the nature and aims of education. According to epistemic infallibilism, propositional knowledge requires epistemic certainty. Though some philosophers accept infallibilism, others consider it implausible because it does not recognize ordinary cases of supposed knowledge. On this objection, we possess many items of propositional knowledge, notwithstanding the fallibleness of these items. Infallibilism is inconsistent with such items and thus considered unwarranted. I articulate this kind of objection to infallibilism as it concerns education. (...) I then offer a cumulative case defense of infallibilism and evaluate that defense. This examination suggests that much of what we commonly consider as education does not provide knowledge, and therefore that the traditional assumption is incorrect. My paper has interdisciplinary interests with respect to epistemology, philosophy of education, philosophy of science, and pedagogical practice. (shrink)

This paper presents an attempt to integrate theories of causal processes—of the kind developed by Wesley Salmon and Phil Dowe—into a theory of causal models using Bayesian networks. We suggest that arcs in causal models must correspond to possible causal processes. Moreover, we suggest that when processes are rendered physically impossible by what occurs on distinct paths, the original model must be restricted by removing the relevant arc. These two techniques suffice to explain cases of late preëmption and other cases (...) that have proved problematic for causal models. (shrink)

Reasons-responsive accounts of praiseworthiness say, roughly, that an agent is praiseworthy for an action just in case the reasons that explain why they acted are also the reasons that explain why the action is right. In this paper, we argue that reasons-responsive accounts imply that some actions of non-human animals are praiseworthy. Trying to exclude non-human animals, we argue, risks neglecting cases of inadvertent virtue in human action and undermining the anti-intellectualist commitments that are typically associated with reasons-responsive accounts. Of (...) course, this could be taken as a reason to reject reasons-responsive accounts, rather than as a reason to attribute praiseworthiness to non-human animal action. We respond to two reasons that one might resist the implication that non-human animal action can be praiseworthy. The first appeals to intuition: it’s too counterintuitive to attribute praiseworthiness to non-human animal action. In response, we argue that once the factors that determine an action’s praiseworthiness are disambiguated from the factors that determine whether an agent should be praised, the intuitive objection loses much of its force. The second appeals to empirical evidence: attributing praiseworthiness to non-human animal action involves a problematic kind of anthropomorphizing. First, we point out that this objection is mostly an _a priori_ objection in _a posteriori_ clothes: whether we give anthropomorphic vs. anthropectic explanations is a methodological choice, not an empirical one. Second, we argue that considerations from the literature on rational analysis and radical interpretation actually support anthropomorphic explanations over anthropectic explanations. (shrink)